Moghulistan
The Persian name Moghulistan translates directly to Land of the Moghuls. This term refers to the eastern branch of ethnic Mongol Chagatai Khans who ruled the region from the mid-14th century until the late 17th century. Soviet historiography frequently used this specific name while Chinese historians preferred East Chagatai Khanate. Timurid authors sometimes called these people Jatah, meaning worthless people in their own language. The Mongols and their subordinates settled in what became known as Moghulistan were originally steppe nomads from Mongolia. They retained a primarily nomadic lifestyle for several centuries longer than other Mongol groups. During the 14th century inhabitants of Moghulistan were known simply as Mogul. The Mogul chieftains and aristocracy used titles like Mirza, Bek, and Amir which had turkic or turko-persian origins. Tughlugh Timur became the first Khan of Moghulistan and converted to Islam in 1354 alongside 160,000 followers. This event ultimately marked the Islamization of Moghulistan. Moghols formed from numerous Turkic tribes including Qangli and Qipchaq. They also included Mongolic tribes such as Arlat, Barin, Barlas, Besüd, Dughlat, and Sudus. Non-Mongolic tribes from Mongolia like Jalayir, Kereyit, Merkit, and Naiman joined the mix. The Muslim view of Turks as Inner Asian nomads was adopted by the Mongols of the Ilkhanate and successors in Central Asia. Moghols eventually adopted the Turkic language resulting in formation of Chagatai Turkic language. Vasily Bartold noted some indications that some of the Moghuls still spoke Mongolian until the early 16th century.
Moghulistan in its strictest sense was centered in the Ili region of Central Asia. It was bounded on the west by the province of Shash and the Karatau Mountains. The southern area of Lake Balkhash marked the northern limit of Moghul influence. From there the border gradually sloped in a southeastern direction until it reached the eastern portion of the Tian Shan Mountains. The Tian Shan then served as the southern border of Moghulistan. Besides Moghulistan proper, the Moghuls also nominally controlled modern-day Dzungaria including Turpan Depression. They also held Nanjiang which included the Tarim Basin. Several other regions were temporarily subjected to Moghul rule at one time or another such as Tashkent, Ferghana and parts of Badakhshan. Moghulistan proper was primarily steppe country where the Moghuls usually resided. Because of the Moghuls' nomadic nature, towns fell into decline during their rule if they managed to remain occupied at all. Aside from towns at the foot of mountains nearly all of Nanjiang was desert. As a result, the Moghuls generally stayed out of that region since it was a poor source of manpower. The Dughlat amirs or leaders from the Naqshbandi Islamic order administered these towns in the name of the Moghul khans until 1514. The Moghuls more directly governed Nanjiang after they lost Moghulistan itself. A later Turki word Altishahr meaning Six Cities came into vogue during the rule of 19th century Tajik warlord Yaqub Beg. This term described certain western then Muslim oasis cities like Yarkand, Kashgar, Hotan, Aksu, Uch-Turpan, and Yangi Hisar. The Buddhist kingdom in Beijiang centered around Turfan was the only area where people were identified as Uyghurs after Islamic invasions.
Tughlugh Timur converted to Islam in 1354 alongside 160,000 followers according to historical records. This event ultimately marked the Islamization of Moghulistan. Tughlugh Timur became Muslim whose concepts of ummah, ghazat holy war, and jihad inspired his territorial expansionism into Transoxiana. The conversion was also politically convenient since he branded dissident princes which he killed as heathens and idolaters. Conversion amongst the general population was slow to follow despite the Khan's actions. In 1360 he took advantage of a breakdown of order in Transoxiana and his legitimacy as descendant of Chagatai Khan. After execution of Shah Temur in 1358 the Transoxianan Turkic amirs had not bothered to appoint a new puppet khan. There was not even a shadow khan in the west that could be used to oppose Tughlugh Timur's legitimist claims to invade the region. He temporarily reunited the two khanates but was unable to keep a lasting hold on the territory. The Moghuls were ultimately expelled by Amir Husayn and Timur who then fought amongst themselves for control of Transoxiana. A Chagatayid restoration occurred in the 1380s when Dughlats enthroned surviving Chagatayid heir Khizr Khoja. For next forty years they installed several khans of their own choosing. Khizr Khoja married his sister to Amir Timur then personally led a holy war against Kitay Uyghurs in Turfan and Qocho. He forcibly converted them to Islam and put an end to the Uyghur polity. During the 15th century Moghul khans became increasingly Turkified. Yunus Khan is mentioned to have looks of Tajik instead of those of Mongol. This Turkification may not have been as extensive amongst general Moghul population who were also slower to convert to Islam than khan and top amirs.
Chagatayid rule in Moghulistan was temporarily interrupted by coup of Dughlat Amir Qamar-ud-Din around 1368. He likely killed Ilyas Khoja and several other Chagatayids during this takeover. This provoked period of near-constant civil wars because tribal chiefs could not accept that commoner could accede to throne. Opposition to Qamar-ud-Din within his own Dughlat tribe compromised unity of Moghulistan. Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat took control of Kashgar while Moghuls remaining obedient to him were constantly at war with Timur. Timur sent at least five victorious expeditions to Moghulistan seriously weakening regime. The Moghuls had sent unsuccessful supplication to Hongwu Emperor of China pleading for help since Tamerlane also wanted to conquer China. They emphasized Transoxiana was land belonging to their own Moghul forefathers regarding Timurid control over Transoxiana as illegitimate. Although military alliance did not result Ming dynasty opened up caravan trade to Moghulistan greatly enriching rulers who collected zakat tax on lucrative Silk Road trade. After Han Chinese united and expelled Mongols from China establishing Ming dynasty Yuan Mongol refugees principally of Borjigin clan migrated to eastern Chagatai Khanate. Those Mongols allied with nomadic Buddhist Christian and Shamanist rebels of Issyk Kul and Isi areas against Chagatai Khan Tarmashirin in 1330s upon his conversion to Islam. During 15th century Moghuls had to deal with several enemy incursions by Oirats, Timurids and Uzbeks. Uwais Khan frequently fought Oirats Western Mongols who roamed area east of Lake Balkash. He was usually defeated and even captured twice by Oirat Esen Tayishi but secured release both times. Esen Buqa frequently raided Timurid Empire to west during his reign from 1428 to 1462.
Ming dynasty opened up caravan trade to Moghulistan greatly enriching the Moghul rulers who collected zakat tax on lucrative Silk Road trade. This trade ushered in era of economic and cultural exchange with China in exchange for state accepting what Ming saw as tributary status to Ming. The Moghuls became direct neighbors of Ming China after Hami became dependency of Turfan in 1513 and remained so until end of Moghul rule. Mansur Khan captured Hami from Kara Del a Mongol dependency of Ming China in 1513. Ahmad Alaq raided Chinese territory and attempted to seize western Tarim Basin from Dughlats though ultimately unsuccessful. The brothers were defeated and captured when they traveled west to assist Mahmud Khan against Uzbeks under Muhammad Shaybani. They were released but Tashkent was seized by Uzbeks. Ahmad Alaq died soon after and was succeeded by son Mansur Khan who captured Hami from Kara Del in 1513. Sultan Said Khan conquered western Tarim Basin from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat in 1514 and set himself up in Kashgar forming Yarkent Khanate. Thereafter Moghulistan khanate was permanently divided although Sultan Said Khan was nominally vassal of Mansur Khan in Turpan. The Moghuls more directly governed Nanjiang after they lost Moghulistan itself since it provided poor source of manpower compared to steppe regions.
Towards end of Yunus' reign his son Ahmad Alaq founded breakaway eastern Khanate in greater Turpan. After Yunus Khan's death territories were divided by his sons. Ahmad Alaq ruled eastern Moghulistan or Turpan Khanate from Turpan fighting series successful wars against Oirats. He raided Chinese territory and attempted to seize western Tarim Basin from Dughlats though ultimately unsuccessful. In 1503 he traveled west to assist brother Mahmud Khan ruler of western Moghulistan in Tashkent against Uzbeks under Muhammad Shaybani. Brothers defeated and captured; released but Tashkent seized by Uzbeks. Mahmud Khan spent several years trying regain authority in Moghulistan eventually gave up submitted to Muhammad Shaybani who executed him. Rest of western Moghulistan area modern Kyrgyzstan gradually lost to Kyrgyz tribes. In 1469-70 Kyrgyz belonging to Oirat confederacy migrated into Tian Shan mountains in Moghulistan. Kyrgyz tribes led by Tagai Biy rebelled against Moghuls; by 1510, 11 they had effectively driven out Moghuls. Sultan Said Khan conquered western Tarim Basin from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat in 1514 set himself up in Kashgar forming Yarkent Khanate. Thereafter Moghulistan khanate was permanently divided although Sultan Said Khan nominally vassal Mansur Khan in Turpan. After Sultan Said Khan death from high altitude edema failed 1533 attack on Tibet succeeded by Abdurashid Khan began reign executing member Dughlat family.
In late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries Yarkent Khanate underwent period decentralization with numerous subkhanates springing centers at Kashgar, Yarkand, Aksu and Khotan. Power in Moghul states gradually shifted from Khans to khojas influential religious leaders in 16th century of Sufi Naqshbandi order. Khans increasingly gave up secular power to khojas until they were effectively governing power in Kashgaria. At same time Kyrgyz began penetrate into Alti-Shahr as well. Khojas themselves divided into two sects: Aq Taghlik and Kara Taghlik. This situation persisted until 1670s when Moghul khans apparently tried reassert authority expelling leader Aq Taghlik. In 1677 Khoja Afaq of Aq Taghlik fled to Tibet where he asked 5th Dalai Lama for help restore power. Dalai Lama arranged Buddhist Dzungar Khanate who inhabited lands north Yarkent khanate to invade 1680 set puppet rulers Yarkent. Yashkent Khanate finally overthrown 1705 bringing end Chagatayid rule Central Asia. Kashghar begs and Kyrgyz staged revolt seized Akbash Khan during assault on Yarkand. Yarkand begs then asked Dzungars intervene resulting Dzungars defeating Kyrgyz putting total termination Chagatai rule installing Aq Taghlik Kashgar. They also helped Aq Taghlik overcome Kara Taghlik Yarkand. Short time later Moghul kingdom Turpan Hami conquered Zunghar Khanate but Zunghars expelled Qing China. Descendants Chagatayid house submitted Qing ruled Kumul Khanate 1696, 1930 vassals China until 1930. Maqsud Shah last them died 1930. Tarim Basin fell overall rule Dzungars until taken Manchu Emperors China mid-18th century.
Continue Browsing
Common questions
What is the meaning of the name Moghulistan?
The Persian name Moghulistan translates directly to Land of the Moghuls. This term refers to the eastern branch of ethnic Mongol Chagatai Khans who ruled the region from the mid-14th century until the late 17th century.
When did Tughlugh Timur convert to Islam in Moghulistan?
Tughlugh Timur converted to Islam on the 2nd of May 1354 alongside 160,000 followers. This event ultimately marked the Islamization of Moghulistan and inspired his territorial expansionism into Transoxiana.
Where was Moghulistan located geographically?
Moghulistan in its strictest sense was centered in the Ili region of Central Asia. It was bounded on the west by the province of Shash and the Karatau Mountains with the southern area of Lake Balkhash marking the northern limit of influence.
Who were the first rulers of Moghulistan after the breakaway from the Chagatai Khanate?
Tughlugh Timur became the first Khan of Moghulistan and converted to Islam on the 2nd of May 1354 alongside 160,000 followers. The Moghols formed from numerous Turkic tribes including Qangli and Qipchaq as well as Mongolic tribes such as Arlat and Barin.
When did the Chagatayid rule in Moghulistan end?
Yarkent Khanate finally overthrew in 1705 bringing an end to Chagatayid rule in Central Asia. Maqsud Shah died in 1930 as the last descendant of the Chagatayid house ruling the Kumul Khanate which remained a vassal of China until that year.