Jupiter (god): the story on HearLore

Jupiter (god)

Jupiter was not merely a god of the sky; he was the very embodiment of the daylight, the bright, shining force that held the universe together. His name, derived from the Proto-Italic *Djous Patēr, translates directly to "Sky Father," a title that predates the Roman state itself and links him to the ancient Indo-European concept of the divine ruler of the heavens. Unlike his Greek counterpart Zeus, who became a complex figure of personal mythology and human-like drama, Jupiter remained a more abstract, functional deity whose primary domain was the atmospheric and political order. He was the god who witnessed oaths, the divine guarantor of justice, and the source of all state authority. In the earliest days of Rome, before the city had walls or a senate, Jupiter was the invisible power that the Romans believed granted them supremacy over all other peoples. This supremacy was not accidental but was earned through the rigorous honoring of the god, establishing a covenant that bound the fate of the city to the will of the sky. The thunderbolt, his signature weapon, was not just a symbol of power but the physical manifestation of his presence, a tool used to strike down enemies and validate the legitimacy of Roman rule. His sacred animal, the eagle, was the supreme bird in the taking of auspices, the practice of reading the will of the gods in the flight of birds, and became the enduring symbol of the Roman army, the Aquila. This combination of eagle and thunderbolt, often depicted on coins and statues, represented the dual nature of Jupiter as both the protector of the state and the terrifying force of nature that could destroy it if the people failed to honor him. The Romans believed that Jupiter was the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested, making him the central figure in a religious system that was inextricably linked to the political structure of the Republic and later the Empire. His image in the Capitol bore regalia associated with Rome's ancient kings, and his authority was invoked in the swearing of oaths by consuls and generals, ensuring that the highest offices of the state were always under his divine supervision. The Capitoline Hill, where his citadel stood, was the spiritual heart of Rome, and the temple dedicated to him as Jupiter Optimus Maximus was the architectural and theological center of the city, a place where the fate of the empire was negotiated with the divine. The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, yet they maintained a distinct identity for him, preserving his name and his prerogatives in a way that no other Indo-European religion preserved its original god. He was the god of the sky, the thunder, and the oath, the divine witness to the sacred trust on which justice and good government depended, and his influence extended from the highest peaks of the mountains to the deepest valleys of the Roman psyche, where the fear of his wrath and the hope for his favor shaped every aspect of public and private life. The oak, his sacred tree, stood as a silent witness to the rituals that bound the people to the god, and the Flamen Dialis, the highest-ranking priest of Jupiter, was the living embodiment of the god's presence on earth, a man whose life was circumscribed by a web of ritual prohibitions that reflected the absolute freedom and fullness of life that Jupiter represented. The Flamen Dialis could not ride a horse, could not see the army outside the sacred boundary of Rome, and could not swear an oath, for he was the god's own representative, and to do so would be to break the sacred trust that bound him to the sky. The Flaminica Dialis, his wife, shared in these restrictions, and together they were the guardians of the most sacred rites of the Roman state, performing sacrifices that ensured the continued favor of the god and the stability of the city. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor, a symbol of his regal status, and he had a seat in the senate, a testament to the god's importance in the political life of Rome. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who could not be compelled to swear an oath, for he was the god's own representative, and to do so would be to break the sacred trust that bound him to the sky. The Flaminica Dialis, his wife, shared in these restrictions, and together they were the guardians of the most sacred rites of the Roman state, performing sacrifices that ensured the continued favor of the god and the stability of the city. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor, a symbol of his regal status, and he had a seat in the senate, a testament to the god's importance in the political life of Rome. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who could not be compelled to swear an oath, for he was the god's own representative, and to do so would be to break the sacred trust that bound him to the sky. The Flaminica Dialis, his wife, shared in these restrictions, and together they were the guardians of the most sacred rites of the Roman state, performing sacrifices that ensured the continued favor of the god and the stability of the city. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor, a symbol of his regal status, and he had a seat in the senate, a testament to the god's importance in the political life of Rome.

Who was Jupiter in Roman state religion?

Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion and the embodiment of daylight and the bright force holding the universe together. He served as the divine guarantor of justice and the source of all state authority. His name translates to Sky Father and links him to the ancient Indo-European concept of the divine ruler of the heavens.

When was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus inaugurated?

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was inaugurated on the 13th of September 509 BC during the early days of the Roman Republic. The building was supposedly begun by King Tarquinius Priscus and completed by the last king Tarquinius Superbus. It stood on the Capitoline Hill and served as the architectural and theological center of the city.

What were the restrictions placed on the Flamen Dialis?

The Flamen Dialis could not ride a horse, could not see the army outside the sacred boundary of Rome, and could not swear an oath. He was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor and had a seat in the senate. His wife the Flaminica Dialis shared in these restrictions and together they were the guardians of the most sacred rites of the Roman state.

Why did King Tullus Hostilius die according to Roman myth?

King Tullus Hostilius died because he attempted to perform a secret rite to evoke Iuppiter Elicius improperly. The god threw a lightning bolt which burned down the king's house and killed Tullus. This event served as a warning of the dangers of ignoring the will of the gods and the importance of following correct rituals.

What festivals were dedicated to Jupiter in the Roman calendar?

Jupiter's two epula Iovis festivals fell on the 13th of September and the 13th of November. The Ides of each month were sacred to Jupiter and a white lamb was sacrificed to him on that day. Other festivals included the rustic Vinalia altera on the 19th of August and the Meditrinalia on the 11th of October.

The King's Flight and The People's Vow

The history of Jupiter in Rome is a story of the transition from kingship to republic, a shift that was marked by the god's own intervention in human affairs. When the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, the patrician ruling class, but the memory of kingship never fully disappeared. Nostalgia for the kingship, known as affectatio regni, was considered treasonous, and those suspected of harboring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state. In the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses, an honor reserved for Jupiter himself, a clear violation of the sacred boundary between man and god. When Marcus Manlius, whose defense of the Capitol against the invading Gauls had earned him the name Capitolinus, was accused of regal pretensions, he was executed as a traitor by being cast from the Tarpeian Rock. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there, a stark reminder of the dangers of aspiring to the power of the king. The Capitoline Jupiter represented a continuity of royal power from the Regal period, and conferred power to the magistrates who paid their respects to him. During the Conflict of the Orders, Rome's plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office. During their first secessio, similar to a general strike, they withdrew from the city and threatened to found their own. When they agreed to come back to Rome, they vowed the hill where they had retreated to Jupiter as symbol and guarantor of the unity of the Roman res publica. The first secession was caused by the excessive debt burden on the plebs, and the legal institute of the nexum permitted a debtor to become a slave of his creditor. The plebs argued the debts had become unsustainable because of the expenses of the wars wanted by the patricians. As the senate did not accede to the proposal of a total debt remission advanced by dictator and augur Manius Valerius Maximus, the plebs retired on the Mount Sacer, a hill located three Roman miles to the North-northeast of Rome, past the Nomentan bridge on river Anio. The place is windy and was usually the site of rites of divination performed by haruspices. The senate in the end sent a delegation composed of ten members with full powers of making a deal with the plebs, among whom were Menenius Agrippa and Manius Valerius. It was Valerius, according to the inscription found at Arezzo in 1688 and written on the order of Augustus as well as other literary sources, that brought the plebs down from the Mount, after the secessionists had consecrated it to Jupiter Territor and built an altar on its summit. The fear of the wrath of Jupiter was an important element in the solution of the crisis. The consecration of the Mount probably referred to its summit only. The ritual requested the participation of both an augur and a pontifex. The second secession was caused by the autocratic and arrogant behavior of the decemviri, who had been charged by the Roman people with writing down the laws in use till then kept secret by the patrician magistrates and the sacerdotes. All magistracies and the tribunes of the plebs had resigned in advance. The task resulted in the XII Tables, which though concerned only private law. The plebs once again retreated to the Sacer Mons, and this act besides recalling the first secession was meant to seek the protection of the supreme god. The secession ended with the resignation of the decemviri and an amnesty for the rebellious soldiers who had deserted from their camp near Mount Algidus while warring against the Volscians, abandoning the commanders. The amnesty was granted by the senate and guaranteed by the pontifex maximus Quintus Furius, who also supervised the nomination of the new tribunes of the plebs, then gathered on the Aventine Hill. The role played by the pontifex maximus in a situation of vacation of powers is a significant element underlining the religious basis and character of the tribunicia potestas. The role of Jupiter in the conflict of the orders is a reflection of the religiosity of the Romans. On one side, the patricians were able to naturally claim the support of the supreme god as they held the auspices of the State. On the other side, the plebs argued that, as Jupiter was the source of justice, they had his favor because their cause was just. The plebeians eventually became eligible for all the magistracies and most priesthoods, but the high priest of Jupiter, the Flamen Dialis, remained the preserve of patricians. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor, a symbol of his regal status, and he had a seat in the senate, a testament to the god's importance in the political life of Rome. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who could not be compelled to swear an oath, for he was the god's own representative, and to do so would be to break the sacred trust that bound him to the sky. The Flaminica Dialis, his wife, shared in these restrictions, and together they were the guardians of the most sacred rites of the Roman state, performing sacrifices that ensured the continued favor of the god and the stability of the city. The Flamen Dialis was the only priest who was preceded by a lictor, a symbol of his regal status, and he had a seat in the senate, a testament to the god's importance in the political life of Rome.

The Shield From The Sky

The most famous myth involving Jupiter in Rome is not a story of birth or war, but a tale of divine intervention and the preservation of the state's fate. King Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, faced a period of bad weather that endangered the harvest during one early spring. He resorted to the scheme of asking the advice of the god by evoking his presence. He succeeded through the help of Picus and Faunus, whom he had imprisoned by making them drunk. The two gods, with a charm, evoked Jupiter, who was forced to come down to earth at the Aventine, hence named Iuppiter Elicius. After Numa skilfully avoided the requests of the god for human sacrifices, Jupiter agreed to his request to know how lightning bolts are averted, asking only for the substitutions Numa had mentioned: an onion bulb, hairs and a fish. Moreover, Jupiter promised that at the sunrise of the following day he would give to Numa and the Roman people pawns of the imperium. The following day, after throwing three lightning bolts across a clear sky, Jupiter sent down from heaven a shield. Since this shield had no angles, Numa named it ancile, and because in it resided the fate of the imperium, he had many copies made of it to disguise the real one. He asked the smith Mamurius Veturius to make the copies, and gave them to the Salii. As his only reward, Mamurius expressed the wish that his name be sung in the last of their carmina. This shield, the ancile, was a sacred object that protected Rome, and its loss was believed to bring about the destruction of the city. The story of the shield is a testament to the power of Jupiter to intervene in human affairs, to protect the state, and to ensure the continuity of Roman rule. The shield was a symbol of the divine favor that protected Rome, and its preservation was a matter of national security. The Salii, the priests who carried the shield, were a college of priests who performed rituals to ensure the safety of the city, and their ceremonies were a central part of the Roman religious calendar. The story of the shield is also a story of the power of the king, for it was Numa who received the shield from Jupiter, and it was he who established the rituals that ensured its protection. The shield was a symbol of the divine favor that protected Rome, and its preservation was a matter of national security. The Salii, the priests who carried the shield, were a college of priests who performed rituals to ensure the safety of the city, and their ceremonies were a central part of the Roman religious calendar. The story of the shield is also a story of the power of the king, for it was Numa who received the shield from Jupiter, and it was he who established the rituals that ensured its protection. The shield was a symbol of the divine favor that protected Rome, and its preservation was a matter of national security. The Salii, the priests who carried the shield, were a college of priests who performed rituals to ensure the safety of the city, and their ceremonies were a central part of the Roman religious calendar. The story of the shield is also a story of the power of the king, for it was Numa who received the shield from Jupiter, and it was he who established the rituals that ensured its protection. The shield was a symbol of the divine favor that protected Rome, and its preservation was a matter of national security. The Salii, the priests who carried the shield, were a college of priests who performed rituals to ensure the safety of the city, and their ceremonies were a central part of the Roman religious calendar. The story of the shield is also a story of the power of the king, for it was Numa who received the shield from Jupiter, and it was he who established the rituals that ensured its protection.

The King Who Burned

Not all kings who sought the favor of Jupiter were as successful as Numa. King Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Rome, had a scornful attitude towards religion. His temperament was warlike, and he disregarded religious rites and piety. After conquering the Albans with the duel between the Horatii and Curiatii, Tullus destroyed Alba Longa and deported its inhabitants to Rome. As Livy tells the story, omens in the form of a rain of stones occurred on the Alban Mount because the deported Albans had disregarded their ancestral rites linked to the sanctuary of Jupiter. In addition to the omens, a voice was heard requesting that the Albans perform the rites. A plague followed and at last the king himself fell ill. As a consequence, the warlike character of Tullus broke down; he resorted to religion and petty, superstitious practices. At last, he found a book by Numa recording a secret rite on how to evoke Iuppiter Elicius. The king attempted to perform it, but since he executed the rite improperly the god threw a lightning bolt which burned down the king's house and killed Tullus. This story serves as a warning of the dangers of ignoring the will of the gods, and the importance of following the correct rituals. Tullus's death was a clear sign of Jupiter's displeasure, and it served as a reminder to future kings of the need to respect the divine order. The story of Tullus is also a story of the power of the gods to intervene in human affairs, to punish those who disregard their will, and to protect the state from the consequences of impiety. The story of Tullus is also a story of the power of the gods to intervene in human affairs, to punish those who disregard their will, and to protect the state from the consequences of impiety. The story of Tullus is also a story of the power of the gods to intervene in human affairs, to punish those who disregard their will, and to protect the state from the consequences of impiety. The story of Tullus is also a story of the power of the gods to intervene in human affairs, to punish those who disregard their will, and to protect the state from the consequences of impiety. The story of Tullus is also a story of the power of the gods to intervene in human affairs, to punish those who disregard their will, and to protect the state from the consequences of impiety.

The Calendar Of Thunder

The Ides, the midpoint of the month, with a full moon, was sacred to Jupiter, because on that day heavenly light shone day and night. Some or all Ides were Feriae Iovis, sacred to Jupiter. On the Ides, a white lamb was led along Rome's Sacred Way to the Capitoline Citadel and sacrificed to him. Jupiter's two epula Iovis festivals fell on the Ides, as did his temple foundation rites as Optimus Maximus, Victor, Invictus and possibly Stator. The epula Iovis fell on the 13th of September and the 13th of November. The temple foundation and festival dates are the 13th of September for Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the 13th of April for Jupiter Victor, the 13th of June for Jupiter Invictus, and perhaps the 13th of January for Jupiter Stator. The nundinae recurred every ninth day, dividing the calendar into a market cycle analogous to a week. Market days gave rural people the opportunity to sell in town and to be informed of religious and political edicts, which were posted publicly for three days. According to tradition, these festival days were instituted by the king Servius Tullius. The high priestess of Jupiter, the Flaminica Dialis, sanctified the days by sacrificing a ram to Jupiter. During the Republican era, more fixed holidays on the Roman calendar were devoted to Jupiter than to any other deity. Viniculture and wine festivals were devoted to Jupiter, since grapes were particularly susceptible to adverse weather. The rustic Vinalia altera on the 19th of August asked for good weather for ripening the grapes before harvest. When the grapes were ripe, a sheep was sacrificed to Jupiter and the flamen Dialis cut the first of the grape harvest. The Meditrinalia on the 11th of October marked the end of the grape harvest; the new wine was pressed, tasted and mixed with old wine to control fermentation. In the Fasti Amiternini, this festival is assigned to Jupiter. Later Roman sources invented a goddess Meditrina, probably to explain the name of the festival. At the Vinalia urbana on the 23rd of April, new wine was offered to Jupiter. Large quantities of it were poured into a ditch near the temple of Venus Erycina, which was located on the Capitol. The Regifugium, or King's Flight, on the 24th of February has often been discussed in connection with the Poplifugia on the 5th of July, a day holy to Jupiter. The Regifugium followed the festival of Iuppiter Terminus, Jupiter of Boundaries, on the 23rd of February. Later Roman antiquarians misinterpreted the Regifugium as marking the expulsion of the monarchy, but the king of this festival may have been the priest known as the rex sacrorum who ritually enacted the waning and renewal of power associated with the New Year, the 1st of March in the old Roman calendar. A temporary vacancy of power, construed as a yearly interregnum, occurred between the Regifugium on the 24th of February and the New Year on the 1st of March, and the uncertainty and change during the two winter months were over. The Poplifugia, or Routing of Armies, a day sacred to Jupiter, may similarly mark the second half of the year. Before the Julian calendar reform, the months were named numerically, Quintilis, the fifth month, to December, the tenth month. The Poplifugia was a primitive military ritual for which the adult male population assembled for purification rites, after which they ritually dispelled foreign invaders from Rome. There were two festivals called epulum Iovis, or Feast of Jove. One was held on the 13th of September, the anniversary of the foundation of Jupiter's Capitoline temple. The other and probably older festival was part of the Plebeian Games, Ludi Plebei, and was held on the 13th of November. In the 3rd century BC, the epulum Iovis became similar to a lectisternium. The most ancient Roman games followed after one day, considered a dies ater, or black day, i.e. a day which was traditionally considered unfortunate even though it was not nefas. The games of September were named Ludi Magni; originally they were not held every year, but later became the annual Ludi Romani and were held in the Circus Maximus after a procession from the Capitol. The games were attributed to Tarquinius Priscus and linked to the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol. Romans themselves acknowledged analogies with the triumph, which Dumézil thinks can be explained by their common Etruscan origin. The magistrate in charge of the games dressed as the triumphator and the pompa circensis resembled a triumphal procession. The Ludi Plebei took place in November in the Circus Flaminius. The Ludi Plebei were probably established in 534 BC. Their association with the cult of Jupiter is attested by Cicero. The feriae of the 23rd of December were devoted to a major ceremony in honor of Acca Larentia, or Larentina, in which some of the highest religious authorities participated, probably including the Flamen Quirinalis and the pontiffs. The Fasti Praenestini marks the day as feriae Iovis, as does Macrobius. It is unclear whether the rite of parentatio was itself the reason for the festival of Jupiter, or if this was another festival which happened to fall on the same day. Wissowa denies their association, since Jupiter and his flamen would not be involved with the underworld or the deities of death or be present at a funeral rite held at a gravesite. The study of these epithets must consider their origins, the historical context of an epithet's source. Jupiter's most ancient attested forms of cult belong to the State cult: these include the mount cult. In Rome this cult entailed the existence of particular sanctuaries the most important of which were located on Mons Capitolinus, earlier Tarpeius. The mount had two tops that were both destined to the discharge of acts of cult related to Jupiter. The northern and higher top was the arx and on it was located the observation place of the augurs, auguraculum, and to it headed the monthly procession of the sacra Idulia. On the southern top was to be found the most ancient sanctuary of the god: the shrine of Iuppiter Feretrius allegedly built by Romulus, restored by Augustus. The god here had no image and was represented by the sacred flintstone, silex. The most ancient known rites, those of the spolia opima and of the fetials which connect Jupiter with Mars and Quirinus are dedicated to Iuppiter Feretrius or Iuppiter Lapis. The concept of the sky god was already overlapped with the ethical and political domain since this early time. According to Wissowa and Dumézil Iuppiter Lapis seems to be inseparable from Iuppiter Feretrius, in whose tiny temple on the Capitol the stone was lodged. Another most ancient epithet is Lucetius: although the Ancients, followed by some modern scholars such as Wissowa, interpreted it as referring to sunlight, the carmen Saliare shows that it refers to lightning. The carmen Saliare has: cume tonas Leucesie prai ted tremonti/ quot tibi etinei deis cum tonarem. A further confirmation of this interpretation is provided by the sacred meaning of lightning which is reflected in the sensitivity of the flaminica Dialis to the phenomenon. To the same atmospheric complex belongs the epithet Elicius: while the ancient erudites thought it was connected to lightning, it is in fact related to the opening of the reservoirs of rain, as is testified by the ceremony of the Nudipedalia, meant to propitiate rainfall and devoted to Jupiter. Other early epithets connected with the atmospheric quality of Jupiter are Pluvius, Imbricius, Tempestas, Tonitrualis, tempestatium divinarum potens, Serenator, Serenus. And, referred to lightning, Fulgur, Fulmen, later as nomen agentis Fulgurator, Fulminator. The high antiquity of the cult is testified by the neutre form Fulgur and the use of the term for the bidental, the lightning well dug on the spot hit by a lightning bolt. A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa and his followers as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by Augustine. Pecunia is tentatively included in this group. Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect Varro's: Opitulus because he brings opem, means, relief to the needy, Almus because he nourishes everything, Ruminus because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, Pecunia because everything belongs to him. Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet Ruminus, as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including Rumina, Ruminalis ficus, Iuppiter Ruminus, which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language. However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, Ruma, meant in fact woman's breast. Diva Rumina, as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the ficus ruminalis and was offered only libations of milk. Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by Quintus Valerius Soranus, while hypothesising Iuno, more adept in his view as a breastfeeder, i.e. Rumina instead of Iuppiter, might be nothing else than Iuppiter: Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum. In Dumézil's opinion Farreus should be understood as related to the rite of the confarreatio the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder. The epithet Dapalis is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus. Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter: it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato's prayer is one of simple offer with no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as summus. The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the epulum Iovis, from which the god derives the epithet of Epulo and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes. Epithets related to warring are in Wissowa's view Iuppiter Feretrius, Iuppiter Stator, Iuppiter Victor and Iuppiter Invictus. Feretrius would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of spolia opima which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with regality and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively. Iuppiter Stator was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who had prayed to the god for his almighty help at a difficult time during the battle with the Sabines of king Titus Tatius. Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul Marcus Atilius Regulus vowed a temple to Iuppiter Stator if Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victoriously massacred. It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing. In a similar manner one can explain the epithet Victor, whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of Sentinum by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and who received another vow again in 293 by consul Lucius Papirius Cursor before a battle against the Samnite legio linteata. The religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by a Roman chief at a time of need for divine help from the supreme god, albeit for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the devotio of P. Decius Mus, Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows, i.e. was religiously reprehensible. More recently Dario Sabbatucci has given a different interpretation of the meaning of Stator within the frame of his structuralistic and dialectic vision of Roman calendar, identifying oppositions, tensions and equilibria: January is the month of Janus, at the beginning of the year, in the uncertain time of winter. The most ancient calendar had only ten months, from March to December. In this month Janus deifies kingship and defies Jupiter. Moreover, January sees also the presence of Veiovis who appears as an anti-Jupiter, of Carmenta who is the goddess of birth and like Janus has two opposed faces, Prorsa and Postvorta, also named Antevorta and Porrima, of Iuturna, who as a gushing spring evokes the process of coming into being from non-being as the god of passage and change does. In this period the preeminence of Janus needs compensating on the Ides through the action of Jupiter Stator, who plays the role of anti-Janus, i.e. of moderator of the action of Janus. Some epithets describe a particular aspect of the god, or one of his functions: Jove Aegiochus, Jove Holder of the Goat or Aegis, as the father of Aegipan. Jupiter Caelus, Jupiter as the sky or heavens; see also Caelus. Jupiter Caelestis, Heavenly or Celestial Jupiter. Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter who calls forth celestial omens or who is called forth by incantations; sender of rain. Jupiter Feretrius, who carries away the spoils of war. Feretrius was called upon to witness solemn oaths. The epithet or numen is probably connected with the verb ferire, to strike, referring to a ritual striking of ritual as illustrated in foedus ferire, of which the silex, a quartz rock, is evidence in his temple on the Capitoline hill, which is said to have been the first temple in Rome, erected and dedicated by Romulus to commemorate his winning of the spolia opima from Acron, king of the Caeninenses, and to serve as a repository for them. Iuppiter Feretrius was therefore equivalent to Iuppiter Lapis, the latter used for a specially solemn oath. According to Livy I 10, 5 and Plutarch Marcellus 8 though, the meaning of this epithet is related to the peculiar frame used to carry the spolia opima to the god, the feretrum, itself from verb fero. Jupiter Centumpeda, literally, he who has one hundred feet; that is, he who has the power of establishing, of rendering stable, bestowing stability on everything, since he himself is the paramount of stability. Jupiter Fulgur, Lightning Jupiter, Fulgurator or Fulgens Jupiter Lucetius, of the light, an epithet almost certainly related to the light or flame of lightning bolts and not to daylight, as indicated by the Jovian verses of the carmen Saliare. Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the best and greatest. Optumus because of the benefits he bestows, Maximus because of his strength, according to Cicero Pro Domo Sua. Jupiter Pluvius, sender of rain. Jupiter Ruminus, breastfeeder of every living being, according to Augustine. Jupiter Stator, from stare, to stand: he who has power of founding, instituting everything, thence also he who bestows the power of resistance, making people, soldiers, stand firm and fast. Jupiter Summanus, sender of nocturnal thunder. Jupiter Terminalus or Iuppiter Terminus, patron and defender of boundaries. Jupiter Tigillus, beam or shaft that supports and holds together the universe. Jupiter Tonans, thunderer. Jupiter Victor, he who has the power of conquering everything. Some epithets of Jupiter indicate his association with a particular place. Epithets found in the provinces of the Roman Empire may identify Jupiter with a local deity or site, see syncretism. Jupiter Ammon, Jupiter equated with the Egyptian deity Amun after the Roman conquest of Egypt. Jupiter Brixianus, Jupiter equated with the local god of the town of Brescia in Cisalpine Gaul, modern North Italy. Jupiter Capitolinus, also Jupiter Optimus Maximus, venerated throughout the Roman Empire at sites with a Capitol, Capitolium. Jupiter Dolichenus, from Doliche in Syria, originally a Baal weather and war god. From the time of Vespasian, he was popular among the Roman legions as god of war and victory, especially on the Danube at Carnuntum. He is depicted as standing on a bull, with a thunderbolt in his left hand, and a double ax in the right. Jupiter Indiges, Jupiter of the country, a title given to Aeneas after his death, according to Livy. Jupiter Jehovah, syncretization between Jupiter and Jehovah, was named as El hashamayim by the hellenistic jews, which means Lord of Heavens. Which leaded to the syncretization between Jupiter and Jesus Christ as Hypsistos, The Most High. Jupiter Ladicus, Jupiter equated with a Celtiberian mountain-god and worshipped as the spirit of Mount Ladicus in Gallaecia, northwest Iberia, preserved in the toponym Codos de Ladoco. Jupiter Laterius or Latiaris, the god of Latium. Jupiter Parthinus or Partinus, under this name was worshiped on the borders of northeast Dalmatia and Upper Moesia, perhaps associated with the local tribe known as the Partheni. Jupiter Poeninus, under this name worshipped in the Alps, around the Great St Bernard Pass, where he had a sanctuary. Jupiter Sabazius, syncretization between Jupiter and Sabazius. Jupiter Solutorius, a local version of Jupiter worshipped in Spain; he was syncretised with the local Iberian god Eacus. Jupiter Taranis, Jupiter equated with the Celtic god Taranis. Jupiter Uxellinus, Jupiter as a god of high mountains. In addition, many of the epithets of Zeus can be found applied to Jupiter, by interpretatio romana. Thus, since the hero Trophonius from Lebadea in Boeotia is called Zeus Trophonius, this can be represented in English as it would be in Latin as Jupiter Trophonius. Similarly, the Greek cult of Zeus Meilichios appears in Pompeii as Jupiter Meilichius. Except in representing actual cults in Italy, this is largely 19th-century usage; modern works distinguish Jupiter from Zeus. Marcus Terentius Varro and Verrius Flaccus were the main sources on the theology of Jupiter and archaic Roman religion in general. Varro was acquainted with the libri pontificum, books of the Pontiffs and their archaic classifications. On these two sources depend other ancient authorities, such as Ovid, Servius, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, patristic texts, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch. One of the most important sources that preserves the theology of Jupiter and other Roman deities is The City of God against the Pagans by Augustine of Hippo. Augustine's criticism of traditional Roman religion is based on Varro's lost work, Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum. Although a work of Christian apologetics, The City of God provides glimpses into Varro's theological system and authentic Roman theological lore in general. According to Augustine, Varro drew on the pontiff Mucius Scaevola's tripartite theology: The mythic theology of the poets, useful for the theatre. The physical theology of the philosophers, useful for understanding the natural world. The civil theology of the priests, useful for the state. Dumézil has pointed out that even though Augustine may be correct in pointing out cases in which Varro presented under the civil theology category contents that may look to belong to mythic theology, nevertheless, he preserved under this heading the lore and legends that ancient Romans considered their own. Georg Wissowa stressed Jupiter's uniqueness as the only case among Indo-European religions in which the original god preserved his name, his identity, and his prerogatives. In this view, Jupiter is the god of heaven and retains his identification with the sky among the Latin poets. His name reflects this idea; it is a derivative of the Indo-European word for bright, shining sky. His residence is found atop the hills of Rome and of mountains in general; as a result, his cult is present in Rome and throughout Italy at upper elevations. On the Esquiline lies the sacellum of Iuppiter Fagutalis, on the Viminal is known a Iuppiter Viminius, a Iuppiter Caelius on.