Juno (mythology)

• 1. Origins And Etymology

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  The name Juno once appeared in ancient texts as Diuno and Diove, a form scholars linked to Iove or Jove. This connection suggested a shared root meaning youth or vital force. Later researchers proposed the word derived from iuven-, the Latin term for youth found in words like iuvenis. A syncopated form called iūn- appeared in inscriptions alongside iūnix, meaning heifer, and iūnior, meaning younger. Georg Wissowa endorsed this derivation in 1912 after W. Schulze and W. Otto published their findings in 1904 and 1905. The original root *yu- described force as seen in Vedic texts where ắyuh meant vital force. Émile Benveniste connected this root to Greek aion and Latin aevum through a common Indo-European source referring to fertile time. In some inscriptions Jupiter himself bore the name Iuuntus, while another of his epithets was Ioviste, a superlative form of iuuen-. This title meant the youngest, suggesting a deep linguistic bond between the two deities. One of the earliest etymologies associated Juno with iuvare, meaning to aid or benefit. Varro and Cicero also linked her name to iuvenescere, which means rejuvenate. These ancient scholars sometimes connected the goddess to the renewal of the new moon, implying she might have been a moon deity. Plutarch wrote about these connections in his Quaestiones Romanae, section 77.

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• 2. Epithets And Functions

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  Juno held a large number of significant and diverse epithets representing various aspects and roles of the goddess. Her central role as a goddess of marriage included titles like Pronuba and Cinxia, meaning she who looses the bride's girdle. Other epithets had wider implications less thematically linked to marriage alone. She appeared as Lucina, reflecting interrelated functions of cyclical renewal and protection of delivery. The ancient called her Covella when helping in the labours of the new moon. At Lanuvium she was known as Sespeis Mater Regina, defining her as sovereign, martial, and fertility goddess. In Tibur and Falerii she was Curitis, the spearholder, an armed protectress. Roman sources recorded her presence at Laurentum, Tibur, Falerii, Veii, Tusculum, and Norba under different names. Five Latin towns named a month after Juno: Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Praeneste, and Tibur. Outside Latium in Campania she was Populona, increasing the number of people or army. In Umbria at Pisaurum she was Lucina, while Terventum in Samnium honored her as Regina. At Aesernia in Samnium she was Regina Populona. In Rome she was since the most ancient times named Lucina, Mater, and Regina. Some scholars debated whether she was also known as Curitis before the evocatio of the Juno of Falerii. Other epithets used at Rome included Moneta, Caprotina, Tutula, Fluonia, Fluviona, and Februalis. These last ones were associated with rites of purification and fertility of February.

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• 3. Rituals And Festivals

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  The festival of Nonae Caprotinae occurred on July 5 when Roman free and slave women picnicked near the site of the wild fig tree. The custom involved mock battles with fists and stones, obscene language, and finally the sacrifice of a male goat to Juno Caprotina under a wildfig tree. This festival had a legendary aetiology concerning the siege of Rome by Latin peoples following the Gallic sack. A slave girl named Philotis, whose Latin name was Tutela or Tutula, proposed that she and other slave girls would render themselves up to the enemy camp pretending to be wives and daughters of prominent families. Upon agreement of the senate, the women dressed elegantly and wearing golden jewellery reached the Latin camp. They seduced the Latins into fooling and drinking until they fell asleep. Then Tutela gave the signal to the Romans brandishing an ignited branch after climbing on the wild fig tree and hiding the fire with her mantle. The Romans irrupted into the Latin camp killing enemies in their sleep. The women were rewarded with freedom and a dowry at public expenses. Plutarch recorded this story in Camillus 33 and Romulus 29. Varro wrote about it in Lin. Lat. VI 18 while Macrobius detailed it in Sat. I 11, 35-40. The annual festival of Matronalia was celebrated here on March 1, day of dedication of the temple. On February 15 the Lupercalia festival was held where Juno was involved as Juno Lucina. In Ovid's Fasti II 425-452 the rite was named after the lucus of Juno Lucina on the Esquiline though Varro said it was located on the Cispius. A goat was sacrificed and its hide cut into strips used to make whips known as flagella wielded by the Luperci.

• 4. Sanctuaries And Iconography

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  A temple of Juno Sospita stood near the Temple of Cybele northwest of the Palatine Hill within the Pomerium. This location sat near or under the site of the 6th century church of San Teodoro which has an unusual circular shape similar to that of the nymphaeum later misnamed the Temple of Minerva Medica. Ovid stated in his early 1st-century poem Fasti that by his time this temple had become so dilapidated it was no longer discernible because of injuries of time. A later Temple of Juno Sospita was vowed by consul G. Cornelius Cethegus in 375 BC and consecrated and opened in 194 BC. This temple stood at the Roman vegetable market beside Temples of Hope and Piety and near the Carmental Gate. It was reported as having fallen into disrepute when stained by episodes of prostitution and a bitch delivered her puppies beneath the temple's statue of the goddess. The consul L. Julius Caesar secured its restoration with a Senatorial decree. Cicero wrote about these events in De Divinatione I 4. Another temple dedicated by Furius Camillus in 392 BC stood on the Aventine and lodged the wooden statue transvected from Veii. Two inscriptions found near the church of S. Sabina indicate the approximate site of the temple corresponding with its place in the lustral procession of 207 BC. The day of dedication and festival was September 1. Another temple stood near circus Flaminius vowed by consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 187 BC during war against Ligures and dedicated by himself as censor in 179 BC on December 23. The sanctuary at Lanuvium included an annual feeding of sacred snake with barley cakes by virgin maidens. The snake dwelt in deep cave within precinct of temple on arx of city where maidens approached lair blindfolded. The snake was supposed to feed only on cakes offered by chaste girls.

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• 5. Comparative Mythology

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  Georges Dumézil proposed theory of irreducibility and interdependence of three aspects: sovereignty, war, fertility in goddesses he interpreted as original structure hypothesised in trifunctional ideology of Indoeuropeans. While male gods incarnated one single function there are female goddesses who make up synthesis of three functions reflecting ideal of woman's role in society. Even though such deity has peculiar affinity for one function generally fertility she is nevertheless equally competent in each of three. As concrete instances Dumézil made that of Vedic goddess Sarasvatī and Avestic Anāhīta. Sarasvati as river goddess first a goddess of third function of vitality and fertility associated to deities of third function as Aśvin and propagation as Sinīvalī. She is mother and on her rely all vital forces. At same time she belongs to first function as religious sovereign being pure means of purifications helping conceiving realisation pious thoughts. Lastly she also warrior allied with Maruts annihilating enemies sole among female goddesses bearing epithet warrior god Indra vrttaghnii destroyer oppositions. Her complete name too threefold The Wet Arədvī The Strong Sūrā The Immaculate Anāhitā. These titles match perfectly those of Latin Junos especially Juno Seispes Mater Regina Lanuvium only difference religious orientation first function. Among Germanic peoples homologous goddess was bivalent military function subsumed into sovereign goddess Frīy(y)o- at same time sovereign wife great god Venus Friy(y)a-dagaz Freitag for Veneris dies. However internal tension character led duplication Scandinavian religion Frigg resulted merely sovereign goddess spouse wizard god Óðinn while from name Freyr typical god third function extracted second character Freyja confined Vani sphere pleasure wealth.