History of science: the story on HearLore

History of science

The earliest roots of scientific thinking emerged not in a laboratory, but in the fertile fields of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia during the third and second millennia before the common era. In these civilizations, the need to predict the annual flooding of the Nile and to measure land after the waters receded drove the development of practical geometry and astronomy. The ancient Egyptians developed a decimal number system and used the 3-4-5 right triangle to rebuild fields and construct rectilinear structures, laying the groundwork for formal mathematics. Their calendar, consisting of twelve months of thirty days each plus five epagomenal days, was fixed and independent of lunar cycles, a significant administrative achievement. Meanwhile, in Mesopotamia, scribes recorded the motions of stars and planets on thousands of clay tablets, creating the first highly successful mathematical descriptions of astronomical phenomena. These Babylonian astronomers could predict the appearances and disappearances of the moon and planets, and their solar year value remains in use today. The Mesopotamians also developed extensive knowledge of the chemical properties of clay, sand, and metals, applying this to the manufacturing of pottery, glass, and soap. Their interest in the natural world was often intertwined with divination, yet the precision of their records laid the foundation for all subsequent exact sciences.

The Greek Turn

A profound shift occurred when Greek natural philosophers began to seek natural causes for physical events rather than attributing them to the whims of gods. Thales of Miletus, often called the first of the Ionian philosophers, postulated that land floats on water and that earthquakes result from the agitation of that water, rejecting supernatural explanations. His student Pythagoras founded a school that investigated mathematics for its own sake and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical. The transition from mythos to logos was further advanced by Leucippus and Democritus, who introduced atomism, the theory that all matter consists of indivisible, imperishable units. Plato and Aristotle systematized these inquiries, with Aristotle introducing empiricism and the notion that universal truths could be arrived at through observation and induction. Aristotle classified over 540 animal species and dissected at least 50, establishing a biological tradition that would influence scholarship for centuries. In the Hellenistic age, the Antikythera mechanism, an analog computer dating from 150 to 100 BCE, demonstrated the ability to calculate planetary positions with mechanical precision, a level of engineering that would not be matched until the fourteenth century. Hippocrates, known as the Father of Medicine, introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical protocols, developing the Hippocratic Oath that remains relevant today. Herophilos was the first to base his conclusions on the dissection of the human body, describing the nervous system with unprecedented detail.

Common questions

When did the earliest roots of scientific thinking emerge in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia?

The earliest roots of scientific thinking emerged during the third and second millennia before the common era. Ancient Egyptians developed a decimal number system and used the 3-4-5 right triangle to rebuild fields and construct rectilinear structures. Babylonian astronomers recorded the motions of stars and planets on thousands of clay tablets to predict the appearances and disappearances of the moon and planets.

Who was the first Greek natural philosopher to postulate that the Earth is spherical?

Pythagoras was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical. He founded a school that investigated mathematics for its own sake after his teacher Thales of Miletus rejected supernatural explanations for earthquakes. Aristotle later classified over 540 animal species and dissected at least 50 to establish a biological tradition.

What was the Islamic Golden Age and when did it span from the eighth to the fourteenth century?

The Islamic Golden Age spanned from the eighth to the fourteenth century and preserved Greek knowledge during a period of decline in Western Europe. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm and derived the term algebra from al-jabr. Ibn Sina wrote the Canon of Medicine which served as a standard text in both the Muslim world and Europe well into the seventeenth century.

When was the word scientist first used to mark the emergence of a distinct professional identity?

The word scientist dates to 1834 and marks the emergence of a distinct professional identity. The Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries transformed natural philosophy into a new mechanistic science. The era of big science emerged after World War II driven by industrial and military concerns.

How did the Antikythera mechanism demonstrate engineering precision in the Hellenistic age?

The Antikythera mechanism is an analog computer dating from 150 to 100 BCE that demonstrated the ability to calculate planetary positions with mechanical precision. This level of engineering would not be matched until the fourteenth century. Herophilos was the first to base his conclusions on the dissection of the human body and described the nervous system with unprecedented detail.