History of India
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73, 55 ka. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE. By 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation. This civilisation flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages.
The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal stood in modern-day India. Inhabitants developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft. They produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick. Roadside drainage systems marked these ancient settlements. A municipal organisation likely governed daily life. The civilisation also developed an Indus script. This script remains undeciphered today. Harappan language is not directly attested. Its affiliation remains uncertain. After the collapse, inhabitants migrated towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin. Ochre Coloured Pottery culture appeared in the Ganga Yamuna Doab region during the 2nd millennium BCE. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They used copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords.
Starting around 1500 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 to 500 BCE. The Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. Early Vedic society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups. Aryan society expanded from the north-western region into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural. Social organisation centred on the hierarchy of four varnas or social classes. Many previous small tribal units began to coalesce into Janapadas. The Kuru kingdom existed from 1200, 450 BCE. King Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya transformed this realm. The centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom. Painted Grey Ware culture flourished in north-eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE. During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre. King Janaka provided patronage for Brahmin sages such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī.
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India. The Maurya Empire unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state. At its greatest extent, it stretched to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan to the Hindu Kush mountains. Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India. By 317 BCE, the empire had fully occupied north-western India. Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta around 297 BCE. Ashoka reigned until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE led to immense loss of life. This led Ashoka to shun violence and embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death. Brihadratha was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire. Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade thrived. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace. Trade routes linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with commerce of the Silk Road.
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture. Scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana emerged during this era. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties made the region an important cultural centre. The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta. The latter Guptas successfully resisted northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of Alchon Huns. Much of southern India including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events. Vakataka emperor Harishena patronised rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves. About 30 excavations were hewn out of rock at Ajanta. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build temples in Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram. Mahendravarman I ruled from 571, 630 CE. Narasimhavarman I reigned from 630, 668 CE. The Kadamba dynasty originated from Karnataka and was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE. King Mayurasharma defeated armies of Pallavas of Kanchi. Kakusthavarma cultivated marital alliances with kings of Gupta Dynasty.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined. Support for Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts. From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested control of northern India. The Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa fought against the Palas of Bengal. Rashtrakutas of the Deccan also vied for dominance. Nagabhata II made the Pratihara Empire the most powerful dynasty in northern India. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, territory stretched from Sindh to Bihar. The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle. By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories declared independence. The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during reign of Raja Raja Chola I. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam. They dominated political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries. The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of western Deccan between 10th and 12th centuries.
The Delhi Sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks. It ruled large parts of Indian subcontinent from 13th to early 16th centuries. The sultanate ushered in period of Indian cultural renaissance. Resulting Indo-Muslim fusion left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture and music. Language of Urdu likely born during period of Delhi Sultanate. A Turco-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia named Timur attacked reigning sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud. Sultan's army defeated on the 17th of December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and city sacked, destroyed, left in ruins after three days. 100,000 war prisoners said put to death in one day. Sacking of Delhi caused significant damage to sultanate. Though revived briefly under Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, it remained shadow of former power. Lodi rule lasted until defeat of last sultan. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate emerged as major power lasting over three centuries. Multiple strong Hindu kingdoms notably Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states played roles shaping landscape.
East India Company gradually acquired control of huge areas between middle of 18th and middle of 19th centuries. Policies led to Indian Rebellion of 1857. India afterwards ruled directly by British Crown in British Raj. After World War I, nationwide struggle for independence launched by Indian National Congress. Mahatma Gandhi led this movement. All-India Muslim League advocated separate Muslim-majority nation state. British Indian Empire partitioned in August 1947 into Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Each gained its independence. Prehistoric era before c. 3300 BCE saw Paleolithic Hominin expansion from Africa reaching subcontinent approximately two million years ago. Oldest hominin fossil remains date to approximately half a million years ago. Genetic research shows level of genetic diversity extremely high. Only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Strong evidence of founder events exists in subcontinent. People practised comparatively high levels of endogamy compared to most world regions.
Common questions
When did anatomically modern humans first arrive on the Indian subcontinent?
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa.
What were the dates for the mature Indus civilisation and which cities were included?
The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal.
Who established the Maurya Empire and when did Ashoka reign until his death?
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India. Ashoka reigned until his death in about 232 BCE after shunning violence following the Kalinga War.
Which dynasties contested control of northern India during the eighth to tenth centuries?
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested control of northern India including the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
When was the Delhi Sultanate founded and what happened on the 17th of December 1398?
The Delhi Sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks. On the 17th of December 1398, Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked and left in ruins after three days.
When was British Indian Empire partitioned into Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan?
British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Each gained its independence following policies that led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857.