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Firefighting: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Firefighting
In the year 60 A.D., the Roman Empire faced a crisis that would eventually lead to the creation of the first organized fire brigade, yet before that, fire was a tool for personal enrichment. Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of the wealthiest men in history, did not merely own property; he owned the city's fire department before it officially existed. When a fire broke out in Rome, Crassus would send his private brigade of 500 men to the scene. They would stand by and do nothing while the property owner panicked. Crassus would then offer to buy the burning building at a fraction of its value. If the owner agreed, his men would extinguish the fire. If the owner refused, the men would simply watch the structure burn to the ground. This predatory strategy allowed Crassus to acquire vast amounts of real estate, which he would then rebuild and lease back to the original owners or new tenants. This system persisted until the Roman Senate, reacting to the chaos and the lack of public safety, established the Corps of Vigils under Emperor Nero. The Vigiles consisted of 7,000 men equipped with buckets and axes who served as both firefighters and police, marking the first time a municipal fire force existed in history.
From Bucket Brigades to Steam Engines
For centuries, the method of fighting fire relied on human chains and simple mechanics. In the 3rd century B.C., the Greek inventor Ctesibius developed a double force pump known as a siphona, which used air pressure to eject water through a pipe and nozzle. By the 16th century, syringes were mounted on wheels to serve as primitive pumps, and the bucket brigade remained the standard method for centuries. This involved two lines of people passing full buckets toward the fire while another line passed empty buckets back to be refilled. The first true fire engines appeared in Amsterdam during the 17th century. In 1721, the English inventor Richard Newsham created a popular fire engine that was essentially a rectangular box on wheels. It was filled using a bucket brigade to create a reservoir, while hand-powered pumps supplied the necessary water pressure to douse fires at a distance. The technology evolved slowly until the 1850s when steam-powered apparatuses were introduced, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire. These steam engines were eventually superseded in the early 1930s by versions powered by internal combustion engines, revolutionizing the speed and reach of firefighting operations.
The Insurance Company Firefighters
The Great Fire of London in 1666 changed the landscape of fire protection in the United Kingdom forever. Before this disaster, some parishes had begun to organize rudimentary crews, but the scale of the destruction necessitated a new approach. Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance to reduce costs, and to protect his investment, he formed his own fire brigade. Other companies followed suit, creating a system where insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark. A common misconception persists that buildings without these marks were left to burn, but in reality, the companies often fought fires in adjacent buildings to prevent the flames from spreading to their insured properties. In 1833, fire insurance companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment. The profession faced its greatest test during World War II when the Auxiliary Fire Service and later the National Fire Service were established to supplement local services. The Fire Service Act of 1938 unified Great Britain's fire service in preparation for the German war machine. During the London Blitz, 700 firemen and 20 firewomen died as a result of heavy bombing, with 91 of these perishing at the same time defending London. By the end of the Blitz, 327 firefighters had lost their lives, highlighting the extreme dangers of the profession during wartime.
Who created the first organized fire brigade in Rome in 60 A.D?
Marcus Licinius Crassus created the first organized fire brigade in Rome in 60 A.D. before the Roman Senate established the official Corps of Vigils under Emperor Nero. Crassus owned a private brigade of 500 men who would extinguish fires only if property owners agreed to sell their burning buildings at a fraction of their value.
When did the Roman Senate establish the Corps of Vigils fire force?
The Roman Senate established the Corps of Vigils under Emperor Nero in the year 60 A.D. The Vigiles consisted of 7,000 men equipped with buckets and axes who served as both firefighters and police. This marked the first time a municipal fire force existed in history.
What year did Richard Newsham create the first popular fire engine?
Richard Newsham created the first popular fire engine in 1721. The engine was a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade to create a reservoir while hand-powered pumps supplied water pressure. Steam-powered apparatuses were introduced later in the 1850s to allow greater quantities of water to be directed onto fires.
How many firefighters died during the London Blitz in World War II?
327 firefighters lost their lives during the London Blitz in World War II. Of these deaths, 91 perished at the same time defending London while 700 firemen and 20 firewomen died as a result of heavy bombing. The Fire Service Act of 1938 unified Great Britain's fire service in preparation for the German war machine.
What percentage of oxygen defines an oxygen-deficient atmosphere for firefighters?
An oxygen-deficient atmosphere is defined as 19.5% oxygen or less compared to the normal 21%. Firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus that use compressed air rather than oxygen to prevent fire acceleration. These units typically hold 30 to 45 minutes of air depending on the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities.
When did Paul Grimwood develop the three-dimensional fire attack strategy?
London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood developed the three-dimensional or 3D attack strategy between 1984 and 1994. This method involves cooling the smoke with short pulses of water to prevent roll-over and avoid backfire of water vapor. The strategy focuses on controlling the fire by cooling the smoke so that it cannot spread rather than directly spraying the seat of the fire.
In the United States, the history of firefighting began in earnest with the destruction of many colonists' provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia, in January 1608. By the mid-1600s, Boston, New Amsterdam, and Philadelphia were all plagued by fires, leading to the formation of volunteer fire brigades. In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These early firefighters utilized two critical tools: salvage bags to quickly collect and save valuables, and so-called bed keys used to separate the wooden frame of a bed, often the most valuable item in a home, into pieces for safe and rapid removal. Franklin also organized the Philadelphia Contributionship in 1740 to provide fire insurance, which was more successful than a previous failed attempt in Charlestown, Massachusetts. The Contributionship adopted fire marks to easily identify insured buildings. Firefighting started to become formalized with rules for providing buckets, ladders, and hooks, and with the formation of volunteer companies. A chain of command was established, setting the foundation for the modern fire service in America.
The Toxic Reality of the Fireground
Firefighting is a dangerous profession due to the toxic environment created by combustible materials. The four major hazards are smoke, oxygen-deficient atmospheres, elevated temperatures, and toxic atmospheres. Smoke is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the increased variety and amount of synthetic household materials. An oxygen-deficient atmosphere is defined as 19.5% oxygen or less, compared to the normal 21%. To combat these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus, which use compressed air rather than oxygen to prevent fire acceleration. These units typically hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending on the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. Despite this gear, firefighters are still exposed to smoke, toxic dust, fumes, and radiation that have contributed to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer. The heat generated by a fire can cause serious burns even from great distances through conductive and radiant heat. Prolonged, intense exertion in hot environments increases the risk for heat-related illnesses such as rhabdomyolysis. Personal protective equipment includes fire-resistant clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No equipment can completely protect the user from all possible fire conditions, and the physical toll is immense, with studies showing that three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function.
The Science of the Three-Dimensional Attack
Modern firefighting has evolved from simply spraying water on the seat of a fire to a complex science of controlling the environment. Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, but today, firefighters arrive sooner and face modern materials like polymers that produce much more heat than traditional wood or stone. Directly spraying the seat of a fire in enclosed areas can have unfortunate consequences, as the force of water pushes air in front of it, supplying the fire with extra oxygen. The most important issue is not combating the flames, but controlling the fire by cooling the smoke so that it cannot spread. This strategy, originally of Swedish origin and adapted by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood between 1984 and 1994, is termed the three-dimensional or 3D attack. Using a diffuse spray, the ceiling is first sprayed with short pulses to cool the smoke, which then becomes less likely to start a fire when it moves away. As gas cools, it becomes denser and reduces the mobility of the smoke, avoiding a backfire of water vapor. This creates an inert water vapor sky that prevents roll-over, which are rolls of flames on the ceiling created by hot burning gases. Only short pulses of water need to be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified, raising the temperature at the ground and endangering firefighters.
The Hidden Dangers of Debris Cleanup
Once a fire is extinguished, the work is far from over, and the cleanup phase poses several safety and health risks for workers. Many hazardous substances are commonly found in fire debris, including silica found in concrete and roofing tiles, which can cause silicosis, lung cancer, and pulmonary tuberculosis. Inhalation of asbestos can result in various diseases including asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma. Sources of metals exposure include burnt or melted electronics, cars, refrigerators, and stoves, exposing workers to beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, and nickel. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, some of which are carcinogenic, come from the incomplete combustion of organic materials and are often found as a result of structural and wildland fires. Safety hazards of fire cleanup include the risk of reignition of smoldering debris, electrocution from downed or exposed electrical lines, and the potential for structures to be unstable and at risk of sudden collapse. Standard personal protective equipment for fire cleanup includes hard hats, goggles, heavy work gloves, steel-toe boots, and fall protection devices. Proper respiratory protection is essential, and when ventilation is insufficient, personal protective equipment such as N95 respirators can be used to avoid or minimize exposure to hazardous substances.