Firefighting
In 60 A.D., emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils to protect Rome after a disastrous fire. This group consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes who fought fires and served as police. Before this official formation, ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action during emergencies. They would form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires. Sometimes they demolished nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. There is no mention of fires being extinguished in these early days; rather they were contained and burned themselves out. The first ever Roman fire brigade was created by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Fires were almost a daily occurrence in Rome at that time. Crassus took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department by creating his own brigade. It was 500 men strong and rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the firefighters did nothing while Crassus offered to buy the burning building from the distressed property owner. He set a miserable price for the transaction. If the owner agreed to sell the property, his men would put out the fire. If the owner refused, then they would simply let the structure burn to the ground. After buying many properties this way, he rebuilt them. Often he leased the properties to their original owners or new tenants.
In the 3rd century B.C., an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a double force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside. This action forced the water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzle. In the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools. The larger ones were mounted on wheels. Another traditional firefighting method that survived was the bucket brigade. Two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Men in one line passed along full buckets of water toward the fire. Women and children passed back empty buckets to be refilled. In the 17th century the first fire engines were made, notably in Amsterdam. In 1721, the English inventor Richard Newsham made a popular fire engine. It was essentially a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade. Hand-powered pumps supplied sufficient water pressure to douse fires at a distance. Steam-powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s. They allowed a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire. In the early 1930s they were superseded by versions powered by an internal combustion engine.
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire. An outdoor fire may not require reconnaissance, but a fire in a cellar or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may require long reconnaissance. The reading of a fire is the analysis by firefighters of indications of thermal events such as flashover, backdraft or smoke explosion. Hot zones can be detected with a gloved hand, for example by touching a door before opening it. Soot on windows usually means that combustion is incomplete. This indicates a lack of air in the room. Smoke pulsing in and out around a door frame suggests a lack of air to support combustion. Spraying water on the ceiling in short pulses of a diffused spray can test the heat of smoke. If the temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound like rain. If the temperature is high, the water vaporizes with a hiss. This sign points to a potentially extremely dangerous impending flashover. Ideally part of reconnaissance involves consulting a plan for the building. Such plans provide information about structures, firefighter hazards, and strategies for fighting fires in specific contexts.
Firefighting is a dangerous profession due to the toxic environment created by combustible materials. The four major hazards are smoke, oxygen deficient atmosphere, elevated temperatures, and toxic atmospheres. Oxygen deficiency occurs when levels drop below 19.5% O2, which is considered oxygen deficient. To deal with such hazards, firefighters carry a self-contained breathing apparatus. These units use compressed air rather than pure oxygen. A firefighter's SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air depending on tank size and consumption rate. While this gear helps eliminate risks, firefighters remain exposed to smoke, toxic dust, fumes and radiation. Studies show these exposures contribute to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer. Obvious risks include burns from hot gases, steam, and hot or toxic smoke. Prolonged intense exertion in hot environments increases risk for heat-related illnesses like rhabdomyolysis. Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function according to a study by Bo Fernhall. Conditions observed in healthy male firefighters were also apparent in weightlifters and endurance athletes.
Full-time career firefighters typically follow a 24-hour shift schedule, although some departments work 8- or 12-hour shifts. Australian firefighters work a 10/14 shift where the day shift works ten hours and the night shift works 14 hours. Firefighting personnel are split up into alternating shifts. Usually the 24-hour shifts are followed by two days off. The shift personnel arrive for roll call at a specified time ready to complete a regular tour of duty. Before 1938 there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment such as hose couplings. In the month of August in 1939 with war looking very possible the Fire Service's act of 1938 came into effect. This unified Great Britain's fire service and prepared them for the German war machine. During the London Blitz, 700 fire men and 20 fire women died as a result of heavy bombing. By the end of the London Blitz, 327 firefighters had lost their lives. In certain jurisdictions civilians can get certified to be a Fire Warden. Some cities require certain types of buildings like high rises to have a certain number of Fire Wardens. For example the city of Houston requires every tenant in a high-rise to have at least one Fire Warden for every 7500 sq ft occupied.
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Common questions
When did emperor Nero establish the Corps of Vigils to protect Rome?
Emperor Nero established the Corps of Vigils in 60 A.D. This group consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes who fought fires and served as police.
How did Marcus Licinius Crassus create his own fire brigade in ancient Rome?
Marcus Licinius Crassus created a 500-man fire brigade that rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. He offered to buy burning properties from distressed owners at a miserable price before putting out the fire or letting them burn if refused.
What invention did Ctesibius make in the 3rd century B.C. for firefighting?
Ctesibius made a double force pump called a siphona in the 3rd century B.C. As water rose in the chamber it compressed air inside which forced water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzle.
Why are firefighters 14% more likely to develop cancer according to studies?
Studies show these exposures contribute to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer due to exposure to smoke toxic dust fumes and radiation. Prolonged intense exertion in hot environments increases risk for heat-related illnesses like rhabdomyolysis.
When did the Fire Service's act of 1938 come into effect in Great Britain?
The Fire Service's act of 1938 came into effect in August 1939. This unified Great Britain's fire service and prepared them for the German war machine during the London Blitz.