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Doping in sport
In 1924, a journalist named Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper Le Petit Parisien and uncovered a dark secret that would define the sport's early history. At Coutances, he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis, and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after a bitter argument with the organizer Henri Desgrange. Pélissier explained the problem regarding the right to remove a jersey and then spoke openly about drugs, leading Londres to invent the phrase Les Forçats de la Route, or The Convicts of the Road. The riders revealed that they kept going on dynamite, pulling phials of cocaine from their bags to sharpen their eyes and using chloroform for their gums. They also carried liniment to put warmth back into their knees and boxes of pills that kept them moving through the pain. The truth was that they suffered from the start to the end, their bodies drained by diarrhea and their minds racing with exhaustion. At night, in their rooms, they could not sleep, twitching and dancing as though possessed by the very substances they consumed. This era of six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and appealed to crowds in America, where the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes and the greater the incentive for riders to stay awake. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs, helpers akin to seconds in boxing, who supplied treatments including nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks. Riders had hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs, with American champion Major Taylor refusing to continue a New York race because he felt a man chasing him around the ring with a knife in his hand. Public reaction turned against such trials, with one report stating that an athletic contest in which participants go queer in their heads is not sport, it is brutality. Days and weeks of recuperation were needed to put the racers in condition, and it was likely that some would never recover from the strain.
The Chemical Cold War
State-endorsed doping began with the Cold War of 1947 to 1991, when every Eastern Bloc gold represented an ideological victory. In 1974, Manfred Ewald, the head of East Germany's sports federation, imposed blanket doping, telling coaches that the athletes were still so young and did not have to know everything. The Sportvereinigung Dynamo was especially singled out as a center for doping, and from 1971 until reunification in 1990, the Stasi, the state secret police, supervised the systematic doping of East German athletes. It is estimated that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse, including Rica Reinisch, a triple Olympic champion who has since had numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts. Two former Dynamo Berlin club doctors, Dieter Binus and Bernd Pansold, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances, with Binus sentenced in August 1998 and Pansold in December 1998. Virtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce failed tests at Kreischa, the Saxon laboratory approved by the International Olympic Committee. The Soviet Union also engaged in systematic doping, with a 1989 Australian study stating that there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games who is not on one sort of drug or another. A KGB colonel stated that agency officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine doping tests, and Soviet athletes were rescued with tremendous efforts. Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, detailing existing steroids operations and suggestions for further enhancements. The first documented case of blood doping occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m. The Soviet Union's head of track and field, Dr. Sergey Portugalov, was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.
Tour de France riders in 1924 used dynamite, cocaine, chloroform, liniment, and various pills to stay awake and manage pain. These substances caused severe physical and mental side effects including diarrhea, exhaustion, and hallucinations.
When did state-endorsed doping begin in the Cold War era?
State-endorsed doping began during the Cold War period from 1947 to 1991 when Eastern Bloc countries used drugs to secure ideological victories. East Germany implemented blanket doping from 1974 under Manfred Ewald, and the Stasi supervised systematic doping until reunification in 1990.
Who developed the first oral anabolic steroid in the United States?
John Ziegler developed the first oral anabolic steroid in the United States in 1954 while working with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company. The resulting drug was methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol.
What happened to Ben Johnson after the 1988 Summer Olympics?
Ben Johnson was stripped of his gold medal and world-record performance after stanozolol was found in his urine at the 1988 Summer Olympics. Carl Lewis was promoted to take the Olympic gold title and recognized as the new record holder.
When was Russia banned from international sport by the World Anti-Doping Agency?
The World Anti-Doping Agency banned Russia from all international sport for four years on the 9th of December 2019 due to widespread doping violations. The Court of Arbitration for Sport reduced the penalty on the 17th of December 2020 to allow Russian athletes to compete as Neutral Athletes for two years.
What performance-enhancing drugs were used by Inter Milan players in the 1960s?
Inter Milan players in the 1960s used amphetamines and other pills distributed by manager Helenio Herrera. Some players were given injections and substances dissolved in coffee to ensure consumption.
The father of anabolic steroids in the United States was John Ziegler, a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol. Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 percent. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the ATP, WTA, ITF, International Olympic Committee, FIFA, UEFA, all major professional golf tours, the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the European Athletic Association, WWE, the NFL, and the UCI. The Steroid Era in Major League Baseball refers to the time period taking place between the late 1980s throughout the early 2000s, characterized by the widespread use of performance-enhancing drugs, more notably anabolic steroids. The most notable athletes being Sammy Sosa, Barry Bonds and Mark McGwire. The Steroid Era remains to be a controversial time in American baseball, with debates continuing regarding the era's impact on official records and legacies. In 1988, Carl Lewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had failed tests for banned substances, but claiming he was just one of hundreds of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis had tested positive three times at the 1988 US Olympic trials for minimum amounts of pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine, which were banned stimulants. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2 ppm, 4 ppm and 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test, with the acceptable level raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances.
The Ben Johnson Shock
A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine, and he later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol, testosterone, Furazabol, and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance, and Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned, as Lewis had tested positive at the Olympic Trials for pseudoephedrine, ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances, and after the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use. Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988. Now it is regarded as negative test, with the acceptable level raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. An IOC official stated that endocrine profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned. The CBC radio documentary, Rewind, Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced, broadcast on the 19th of September 2013, for the 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist Calvin Smith of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said, I should have been the gold medalist.
The Blood Doping Scandal
Systematic doping in Russian sports has resulted in 47 Olympic and tens of world championships medals being stripped from Russian competitors, the most of any country, more than four times the number of the runner-up, and more than 30% of the global total. Russia also has the most competitors that have been caught doping at the Olympic Games, with more than 200. Due to widespread doping violations, including an attempt to sabotage ongoing investigations by the manipulation of computer data, on the 9th of December 2019 the World Anti-Doping Agency banned Russia from all international sport for four years. As at the 2018 Winter Olympics, WADA will allow individual cleared Russian athletes to compete neutrally under a title to be determined. Russia later filed an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport against the WADA decision. The Court of Arbitration for Sport, on review of Russia's appeal of its case from WADA, ruled on the 17th of December 2020 to reduce the penalty that WADA had imposed. Instead of banning Russia from sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but for a period of two years the team cannot use the Russian name, flag, or anthem and must present themselves as Neutral Athlete or Neutral Team. The ruling does allow for team uniforms to display Russia on the uniform as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design, although the name should be up to equal predominance as the Neutral Athlete/Team designation. On the 19th of February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym ROC, after the name of the Russian Olympic Committee. On aftermatch, the IOC announced that the Russian national flag would be substituted by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. It would also be allowed to use team uniforms bearing the words Russian Olympic Committee, or the acronym ROC would be added. On the 15th of April 2021, the uniforms for the Russian Olympic Committee athletes were unveiled, featuring the colours of the Russian flag. On the 22nd of April 2021, the replacement for Russia's anthem was approved by the IOC, after an earlier choice of the patriotic Russian war song Katyusha was rejected. A fragment of Pyotr Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 is used.
The Football Deception
In the 1960s, Inter Milan has its greatest period of success known as La Grande Inter, achieved when Helenio Herrera was their manager. He won seven trophies with the club. In 2004, Ferruccio Mazzola, Inter player during that period, accused him of distributing performance-enhancing drugs, including amphetamines, among the team players, especially the substitute players who often served as guinea pigs for trying new pills and see if they worked. When he found out that some in the team were spitting them out, he dissolved them in coffee to make sure they were consumed, a practice known as Caffè di Herrera. In 2010, Inter sued Mazzola but lost the case, the court believed him. One of the reasons he spoke up were the serious medical conditions and/or deaths of some of his former members, including Giuliano Taccola, then team's captain Armando Picchi who died aged 36 due to cancer, Marcello Giusti, Carlo Tagnin, Mauro Bicicli, Ferdinando Miniussi, Enea Masiero and Pino Longoni. He suspected the drugs to be the cause of their sufferings. In 2015, his brother Sandro, who denied everything at the beginning, admitted that the incidents happened. In the 1970s performance-enhancing drugs were used on a regular basis according to witnesses of that period, mostly in Ajax, Feyenoord and AZ Alkmaar during competitive matches, including the 1970 and 1972 Intercontinental Cups won by the first two cited clubs. Jan Peters recounted drug use before the big games, and they seemed to work as he felt energy boosts and euphoria. Johnny Rep, former Ajax player, claimed that everyone was on something. He recounted injections for everyone on the 1st of November 1979, ahead of a match of his team, Saint-Etienne, against PSV Eindhoven. Pierre Poty, who was physician of the club at that time, also revealed that he worked with uppers and reasoned it with the fantastic effects. Fritz Kessel, also physician, worked for the Dutch national side for 30 years and revealed that drugs were common in the 1974 and 1978 FIFA World Cups. He said that to Guido Derksen, writer of Voetbal Mysteries, who wrote that players consumed tons of amphetamines. In 1987, Toni Schumacher wrote about a long-running tradition of doping in the Bundesliga, claiming that lots of players were taking Captagon. He himself experimented with it and the effects were increased aggression, lower pain threshold, increased focus, confidence and endurance, with the by effect being sleeping problems. In Köln he was chauffeuring his colleagues to the doctor who gave them pills and injections, presumably anabolics and stimulants. In the national team he mentioned a walking chemist and hormone use. Despite being supported by Paul Breitner he had to leave Köln after 544 games. Later on, his statements about doping in the Bundesliga were supported by Per Roentved, Hans Werner Moors, Dieter Schatzscheider, Hans-Josef Kapellmann, Peter Neururer, Benno Möhlmann, Uwe Nester, Peter Geyer, Jürgen Röber, Jürgen Stumm and Peter Harms. At Olympique Marseille, doping took place according to Marcel Desailly, Jean-Jacques Eydelie, Chris Waddle, and Tony Cascarino. They told about stimulants taken prior to their big games, which made them more energetic and keen. According to Eydelie, all of them took a series of injections in the 1993 Champions League final, except Rudi Völler. All this was no surprise for Arsene Wenger, who said everyone in France assumed something like that going on. Additionally, Desailly and Cascarino claimed that Bernard Tapie, the president himself, distributed pills and injections. Although Juventus won the 1996 Champions League final, the victory was overshowed by accusations of doping. The Juventus team has been accused of using erythropoietin and the matter went to trial in 2004. In November 2004, club doctor Riccardo Agricola was given a 22-month prison sentence and fined €2,000 for sporting fraud by providing performance-enhancing drugs, specifically EPO, to players between 1994 and 1998. Leading hematologist Giuseppe d'Onofrio said that it was practically certain that midfielders Antonio Conte and Alessio Tacchinardi had taken EPO to overcome brief bouts of anemia, and that it was very probable that seven other players had taken EPO in small doses. In April 2005, the Court of Arbitration for Sport gave the following advisory opinion, in part, that the use of pharmaceutical substances which are not expressly prohibited by sports law, and which cannot be considered as substances similar or related to those expressly prohibited, is not to be sanctioned by disciplinary measures. In December 2005, Agricola was acquitted of the charges by Turin's court of appeal. In March 2007, in the final verdict by the Supreme Court of Cassation, stated that in the years of 1994 to 1998 there was no ascertained positive case of doping substances by Juventus players, that the purchase of erythropoietin or its administration to the athletes of the club does not emerge from any act of the trial, and that the same expert had identified the possibility of an administration of erythropoietin in distant terms from the sure evidence. The verdict also went on to say that in response to the conclusion taken, the territorial court notes that there were no deferred values higher than the limits set in the various antidoping protocols and that the situation of the Juventus players, both with reference to the average hematological values, and in relation to that of material balance, did not differ from the national average population.
The Modern Battleground
In December 2013, the UFC began a campaign to drug test their entire roster randomly all year-round. Random testing, however, became problematic for the promotion as it began to affect revenue, as fighters who had tested positive would need to be taken out of fights, which adversely affected fight cards, and therefore pay-per-view sales. If the UFC were not able to find a replacement fighter fights would have to be cancelled. According to Steven Marrocco of MMAjunkie.com, about 31% of UFC fighters subjected to random testing since the program first started have failed due to using performance-enhancing drugs. That is approximately five failed tests for every sixteen random screenings. No fighters are exempt from these tests, no matter how big or small. Former Bantamweight champion TJ Dillashaw tested positive for EPO following his fight with Henry Cejudo in January 2019. Jon Jones, the current Heavyweight champion in the UFC, tested positive for banned substances in June 2016. Jones urine was found to contain Clomiphene and Letrozole which lead to a one-year suspension from the sport. Another highly decorated fighter by the name of Anderson Silva tested positive for two anabolic steroids following his bout against Nick Diaz at UFC 183. The steroids were methyltestosterone and Hydrochlorothiazide. From July 2015, the UFC has advocated to all commissions that every fighter be tested in competition for every card. Lorenzo Feritta, who at the time was one of the presidents of the UFC, said, We want 100 percent of the fighters tested the night they compete. Also, in addition to the drug testing protocols in place for competitors on fight night, the UFC conducts additional testing for main event fighters or any fighters that are due to compete in championship matches. This includes enhanced, random out of competition testing for performance-enhancing drugs, with both urine and blood samples being taken. The UFC also announced that all potential UFC signees would be subject to mandatory pre-contract screening for performance-enhancing drugs prior to being offered a contract with the promotion. The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a clean athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and equality among athletes. The use of the suit in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport. Erythropoietin is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher VO2 max. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potency and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as blood transfusion. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002 as there was no specific screening process to test athletes. Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. A notable case being TJ Dillashaw. The former UFC bantamweight champion of the world tested positive for EPO following his flyweight title fight against Henry Cejudo in January 2019. Over 30% of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships in Athletics admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program. Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia.