Deism
The 3rd-century Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria wrote in his Stromata that some people believed God was not involved in human affairs. He described their lifestyle as licentious, yet this early thought planted a seed for later deistic ideas. Deism did not emerge as a distinct movement until after the Scientific Revolution began in the mid-16th century. In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools to develop was the Mu'tazila in the mid-8th century CE. These theologians emphasized reason and rational thought as the way to understand divine injunctions. They argued that the Quran was created rather than co-eternal with God, a stance that became highly contentious. By the 9th, 10th century CE, the Ash'ari school arose as a response to the Mu'tazila. Abū al-Hasan al-Ash'ari founded this school, teaching that reason could help understand the Quran but denying that moral truths could be deduced solely through reasoning. The Māturīdī school opposed this view. Its founder, Abū Manşūr al-Māturīdī, asserted that human reason alone should acknowledge a creator deity without relying on revelation. This conviction was shared by his teacher, Abū Hanīfa al-Nu'mān from the 8th century CE. According to Afghan-American philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, these early Islamic theological beliefs carried a rich color of deism mixed with slight theistic tendencies.
The first major statement of deism in English literature appeared in Lord Herbert of Cherbury's book De Veritate published in 1624. Herbert searched for foundations of knowledge much like his contemporary Descartes did. He distinguished innate truths imprinted on our minds from revealed truths. These universal truths were called Common Notions and included five key ideas: one Supreme God exists, God ought to be worshipped, virtue is central to worship, repentance matters, and divine goodness dispenses rewards or punishments. Herbert himself had few followers until Charles Blount emerged as his successor in the 1680s. Blount used classical learning to challenge Christianity using pagan writers and ideas. The appearance of John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding marked an important turning point in 1690. Locke attacked the foundation of innate ideas that Herbert relied upon. After Locke, deists turned to arguments based on experience and nature instead. Under Newton's influence, they adopted the argument from design as their principal proof for God's existence. Peter Gay identified John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious published in 1696 as the beginning of post-Lockian deism. Gay described Toland and Matthew Tindal as talented publicists rather than deep philosophers. Conyers Middleton and Anthony Collins contributed more substance to the debate. Thomas Chubb was a self-educated freethinker while Thomas Woolston was close to madness. William Wollaston, Henry St John, and Peter Annet also played prominent roles during this period.
Enlightenment deism consisted of two philosophical assertions: reason and natural world features were valid sources of religious knowledge, while revelation was not. Leslie Stephen later termed these the constructive and critical aspects of deism. Constructive assertions included beliefs that God exists, created the universe, and gave humans the ability to reason. Critical assertions rejected all books claiming divine revelation including the Quran and Bible. They denied miracles, prophecies, and other supernatural claims. A central premise held that organized religions corrupted an original pure religion through priestcraft. Priests manipulated doctrine for personal gain and class interests. This corruption kept laypeople baffled by mysteries and dependent on priesthoods for salvation information. Matthew Tindal claimed the Christian Church's proper role was to destroy traditional revelations and restore true primitive natural religion implanted in mankind from creation. Different deists held varying views about soul immortality. Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists who denied or doubted soul survival after death. Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection. Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston held souls survive death and face reward or punishment. Thomas Paine believed only in the probability of soul immortality. Most American deists firmly believed in divine providence despite rejecting miracles. Those believing in a watchmaker God stepped away after establishing natural laws. Others reluctantly accepted at least the possibility of miracles since God remained all-powerful.
Thomas Jefferson exhibited perhaps the clearest deistic tendencies among U.S. founding fathers though he generally called himself Unitarian instead. His excerpts of canonical gospels known as the Jefferson Bible stripped all supernatural references from Jesus' life narrative. Like Franklin, Jefferson believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs. Thomas Paine contributed significantly through his writings defending deism while criticizing Abrahamic religions. The Age of Reason published between 1793, 1794 advocated deism promoted reason and freethought against institutionalized Christianity. This treatise earned Paine widespread vilification during its own time yet remains influential today. Elihu Palmer wrote Principles of Nature in 1801 which became known as the Bible of American Deism. He founded the Deistical Society of New York and other societies stretching from Maine to Georgia. Benjamin Franklin stated in his Autobiography that arguments from deist books appeared stronger than their refutations leading him to become a thorough deist. Franklin believed the Deity sometimes interfered by particular providence setting aside events otherwise produced by nature or free agency. At the Constitutional Convention he declared longer living made proofs more convincing that God governs men's affairs. Ethan Allen, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton also showed varying degrees of deistic influence.
Voltaire was France's most famous deist exposed to Newtonian science and English deism during his two-year exile in England from 1726, 1728. Upon returning to France he brought both back exposing aristocratic reading publics through numerous books. French deists included Maximilien Robespierre and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During the French Revolution spanning 1789, 1799 the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being served briefly as state religion replacing Catholic Church and atheistic Cult of Reason for just under three months. Over five hundred French revolutionaries identified as deists yet they did not fit stereotypes since many believed in miracles and prayed to God. More than seventy thought God miraculously helped win victories against enemies while over one hundred wrote prayers and hymns to Him. Citizen Devillere claimed God conducted their destiny commanding spirit of victory directing faithful hands destroying wicked ones avenging liberty. Frederick the Great was a deist according to correspondence with Voltaire though Immanuel Kant's identification remains controversial. Allen Wood argues Kant was deistic while Stephen Palmquist presents counterarguments suggesting otherwise. Peter Gay described enlightenment deism entering slow decline as recognizable movement by the 1730s after Woolston and Tindal writings ended.
Contemporary deism attempts integrating classical ideas with modern philosophy and current scientific knowledge producing wide variety personal beliefs classified broadly as deism. Subcategories include monodeism pandeism panendeism spiritual deism process deism Christian deism polydeism scientific deism humanistic deism. Some see design in nature purpose in universe and lives others view God universe co-creative process observing humanity without direct intervention. Theologian Charles Hartshorne examined rejecting both deism and pandeism favoring conception called AR featuring absolute perfection some respects relative perfection all others. Charles Taylor showed historical role leading to exclusive humanism invoking moral order wholly intra-human no reference transcendence. This humanism discloses new anthropocentric moral sources motivating mutual benefit acts through buffered disengaged self locus dignity freedom discipline endowed sense capability. By early 19th century this deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed alternative to Christian faith personal God miracles mystery. Critics accuse adherents facilitating rise nihilism though scholars believe lingering influence persists on modern society. Biblical criticism evolved into highly technical discipline while rejection revealed religion contributed 19th-century liberal British theology rise Unitarianism. Recent philosophical discussions continue examining these concepts within broader theological frameworks.
In Nazi Germany Gottgläubig literally meaning believing in God served as religious term for non-denominationalism practiced by citizens leaving Christian churches professing higher power divine creator. These National Socialists unfavourable toward existing religious institutions tolerated no atheism ranks. Official designation defined piety morality without church denomination yet rejecting irreligion godlessness. Census May 1939 indicated 54% population considered Protestant 41% Catholic 3.5% self-identified Gottgläubig 1.5% atheist. Adolf Hitler first mentioned Positive Christianity phrase 1920 National Socialist Programme seeking freedom religion denominations not endangering existence opposing Germanic race moral senses. When Nazis gained power 1933 asserted state control churches through Reichskonkordat Roman Catholic Church forced merger Evangelical Church Confederation Protestant Reich Church. Relations worsened late 1936 seeing Kirchenaustritt rising gradually. Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick officially recognized term the 26th of November 1936 stressing political disassociation from churches not religious apostasy. An early April 2018 Turkish Ministry Education report titled The Youth is Sliding towards Deism observed increasing pupils İmam Hatip schools repudiating Islam favour deism generating large-scale controversy press society conservative Islamic sects clerics Islamist parties. Progressive Muslim theologian Mustafa Öztürk noted trend arguing archaic dogmatic notion causing new generations indifferent distant Islamic worldview despite lack reliable statistical data numerous anecdotes independent surveys point direction.
Common questions
When did deism emerge as a distinct movement after the Scientific Revolution began?
Deism emerged as a distinct movement in the mid-16th century following the start of the Scientific Revolution. Clement of Alexandria described early beliefs about God not being involved in human affairs during the 3rd century, but these thoughts only developed into a specific movement later.
What are the five key ideas called Common Notions found in Lord Herbert of Cherbury's De Veritate published in 1624?
The five key ideas include one Supreme God exists, God ought to be worshipped, virtue is central to worship, repentance matters, and divine goodness dispenses rewards or punishments. These universal truths were distinguished from revealed truths by Herbert when searching for foundations of knowledge like his contemporary Descartes.
Who founded the Mu'tazila school in Islam and what was their stance on the Quran during the mid-8th century CE?
One of the earliest systematic schools to develop was the Mu'tazila in the mid-8th century CE which emphasized reason and rational thought to understand divine injunctions. They argued that the Quran was created rather than co-eternal with God, a position that became highly contentious before the Ash'ari school arose in response.
How did Thomas Paine promote deism through The Age of Reason published between 1793 and 1794?
Thomas Paine contributed significantly through writings defending deism while criticizing Abrahamic religions in The Age of Reason published between 1793 and 1794. This treatise advocated deism promoted reason and freethought against institutionalized Christianity earning widespread vilification during its own time yet remaining influential today.
What percentage of Germany's population self-identified as Gottgläubig according to the census conducted on the 2nd of May 1939?
The census on the 2nd of May 1939 indicated that 3.5% of the population self-identified as Gottgläubig while 54% considered Protestant and 41% Catholic. Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick officially recognized the term on the 26th of November 1936 stressing political disassociation from churches not religious apostasy.