Deism: the story on HearLore

Deism

In the year 1624, a man named Edward Herbert published a book that would quietly ignite a revolution in human thought, arguing that the universe was a self-sustaining machine created by a Supreme Being who then stepped back to let natural laws run their course. This was the first major statement of Deism in English literature, titled De Veritate, and it proposed a radical idea: that God did not need to intervene in human affairs, perform miracles, or speak through prophets. Herbert, a Welsh nobleman and philosopher, suggested that the existence of a creator could be proven solely through reason and observation of the natural world, without relying on any holy book or religious authority. This concept of a distant, non-intervening God stood in stark contrast to the prevailing religious views of the time, which held that God was actively involved in daily life, answering prayers, and performing miracles to guide humanity. Herbert's theory of knowledge, which he called Common Notions, posited that certain truths were imprinted on the human mind and universally accepted, forming the foundation of all religious belief. These Common Notions included the existence of one Supreme God, the duty to worship Him, the importance of virtue and piety, the necessity of repentance for sins, and the belief in rewards and punishments in the afterlife. Although Herbert himself had relatively few followers during his lifetime, his ideas laid the groundwork for a movement that would challenge the very foundations of organized religion in the centuries to come. The Deist God was not a personal deity who cared about individual lives, but a cosmic architect who set the universe in motion and then withdrew, leaving humanity to navigate the world using their own reason and observation.

The Age of Reason and Doubt

By the late 17th century, the intellectual landscape of Europe was shifting dramatically, as philosophers began to question the authority of religious institutions and the validity of revealed truths. The publication of John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690 marked a turning point, as Locke attacked the idea of innate ideas, forcing Deists to abandon Herbert's Common Notions and instead base their arguments on experience and nature. This shift led to the development of the argument from design, which used Newtonian science to suggest that the complexity and order of the universe were evidence of a creator. The movement gained momentum with the publication of John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious in 1696, which argued that there was nothing in the Gospel contrary to reason, and Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation in 1730, which became known as the Deist's Bible. Tindal's work redefined the foundation of Deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason, effectively widening the gap between traditional Christians and what he called Christian Deists. The Deists were not a monolithic group; they included talented publicists like Toland and Tindal, as well as serious scholars like Anthony Collins and Conyers Middleton. Collins, who lived from 1676 to 1729, was one of the few Deists who could claim much philosophical competence, while Middleton, who lived from 1683 to 1750, was a really serious scholar. Other Deists, such as Thomas Chubb and Thomas Woolston, were self-educated freethinkers, with Woolston being close to madness. The movement was not without its dangers; deist authors were forced to cover their opinions with a veil of decent ambiguity, and some were banished, imprisoned, or even had their books burned by the hangman. The Deists sought to destroy in order to build, reasoning either from the absurdity of Christianity to the need for a new philosophy or from their desire for a new philosophy to the absurdity of Christianity. They were critical of priestcraft, which they saw as a manipulation of religious doctrine to keep laypeople baffled and dependent on the priesthood for information about salvation. The Deists believed that the corruption of natural religion was designed to keep people in delusion and ignorance, and that the acquisition of knowledge was made a real sin by the priesthood. Despite the dangers, the movement was formidable, deriving its strength from a peculiar combination of critical and constructive elements.

When did Edward Herbert publish the first major statement of Deism in English literature?

Edward Herbert published the first major statement of Deism in English literature in the year 1624. The book was titled De Veritate and argued that the universe was a self-sustaining machine created by a Supreme Being who then stepped back to let natural laws run their course.

Who wrote Christianity as Old as the Creation and why is it known as the Deist Bible?

Matthew Tindal wrote Christianity as Old as the Creation in 1730. This work became known as the Deist Bible because it redefined the foundation of Deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason, effectively widening the gap between traditional Christians and what he called Christian Deists.

What was the duration of the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being during the French Revolution?

The Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being lasted just under three months during the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799. It was established as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and the rival atheistic Cult of Reason.

When was the term Gottgläubig officially recognized by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick?

The term Gottgläubig was officially recognized by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick on the 26th of November 1936. This designation was for German citizens who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator.

How many self-identifying Deists were there in the United States between 1990 and 2001 according to the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey?

The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey report estimated that the number of self-identifying Deists grew from 6,000 to 49,000 between 1990 and 2001. This represented about 0.02% of the U.S. population at the time.

The American Founders and Faith

In the Thirteen Colonies of North America, which became the United States of America after the American Revolution in 1776, English Deism exerted a profound influence on the thinking of key figures such as Thomas Jefferson and the principles of religious freedom asserted in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The debate over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians, Deists, or something in between remains particularly heated, with Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington at the center of the controversy. Franklin, who became a thorough Deist after reading books against Deism that argued the opposite of what he expected, believed that the Deity sometimes interfered by his particular Providence, and at the Constitutional Convention stated that the longer he lived, the more convincing proofs he saw of the truth that God governs in the affairs of men. Jefferson, who generally referred to himself as a Unitarian rather than a Deist, created the Jefferson Bible, which stripped all supernatural and dogmatic references from the narrative on Jesus' life, and believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs. Thomas Paine, perhaps the most notable Deist of the era, wrote The Age of Reason between 1793 and 1794, advocating Deism, promoting reason and freethought, and arguing against institutionalized religions in general and the Christian doctrine in particular. Paine's work was short, readable, and probably the only Deistic treatise that continues to be read and influential today, though it earned him widespread vilification in its own time. The last contributor to American Deism was Elihu Palmer, who wrote the Bible of American Deism, Principles of Nature, in 1801, and attempted to bring some organization to Deism by founding the Deistical Society of New York and other Deistic societies from Maine to Georgia. The influence of Deism on the American founding was significant, with other Founding Fathers such as Ethan Allen, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton being influenced to various degrees by Deism. The movement's emphasis on reason and the rejection of revealed religion contributed to the rise of Unitarianism and the development of biblical criticism as a highly technical discipline. Despite the decline of Enlightenment Deism, scholars believe that these ideas still have a lingering influence on modern society, with contemporary Deism attempting to integrate classical Deism with modern philosophy and the current state of scientific knowledge.

The French Revolution and the Supreme Being

In France, the Deistic movement took on a unique character, with the most famous Deist being Voltaire, who was exposed to Newtonian science and English Deism during his two-year period of exile in England from 1726 to 1728. When he returned to France, he brought both back with him, and exposed the French reading public, particularly the aristocracy, to them in a number of books. French Deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and during the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799, the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being was established briefly, lasting just under three months, as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and the rival atheistic Cult of Reason. There were over five hundred French Revolutionaries who were Deists, and these Deists did not fit the stereotype of Deists because they believed in miracles and often prayed to God. In fact, over seventy of them thought that God miraculously helped the French Revolution win victories over their enemies, and over a hundred French Revolutionary Deists also wrote prayers and hymns to God. Citizen Devillere was one of the many French Revolutionary Deists who believed God did miracles, stating that God, who conducted their destiny, deigned to concern himself with their dangers and commanded the spirit of victory to direct the hand of the faithful French. The Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being was a direct expression of Robespierre's theological views, and it represented a unique blend of Deism and revolutionary fervor. The movement was not without its challenges, as the violence of the French Revolution and the rise of anti-rationalist and counter-Enlightenment philosophies contributed to the decline of Enlightenment Deism. Despite the decline, the ideas of the French Deists continued to influence modern society, with their emphasis on reason and the rejection of revealed religion contributing to the development of liberal theology and the rise of Unitarianism. The French Deists' belief in miracles and their active participation in the Revolution demonstrated that Deism was not a monolithic movement, but rather a diverse collection of individuals who shared a commitment to reason and the rejection of organized religion.

The Machine and the Mind

Enlightenment philosophers under the influence of Newtonian science tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being, that continued to operate according to natural law without any divine intervention. This view naturally led to what was then called necessitarianism, the modern term for determinism, which held that everything in the universe, including human behavior, was completely, causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. The debate about freedom versus necessity was a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions, with some Deists, such as Anthony Collins, being actual necessitarians. David Hartley, for example, described himself as quite in the necessitarian scheme, and La Mettrie's L'Homme machine explored the idea of humans as machines. The Deists' rejection of miracles also seemed to entail the rejection of divine providence, something that many Deists were inclined to accept. Most American Deists, for example, firmly believed in divine providence, while those who believed in a watchmaker God rejected the possibility of miracles and divine providence. They believed that God, after establishing natural laws and setting the cosmos in motion, stepped away, and did not need to keep tinkering with his creation. The suggestion that God did intervene was insulting to those who believed in a watchmaker God, as it implied that the original creation was flawed. Others, however, firmly believed in divine providence, and so were reluctantly forced to accept at least the possibility of miracles. God was, after all, all-powerful and could do whatever he wanted, including temporarily suspending his own natural laws. The Deists' views on the immortality of the soul varied, with some, such as Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet, being materialists and either denying or doubting the immortality of the soul. Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection, while Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life. Thomas Paine believed in the probability of the immortality of the soul. The Deists' views on the nature of the universe and the role of God in it were complex and varied, reflecting the intellectual climate of the time and the diverse backgrounds of the individuals who identified as Deists.

The Shadow of the Third Reich

In Nazi Germany, a form of non-denominationalism known as Gottgläubig, literally meaning believing in God, was practiced by those German citizens who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator. These National Socialists were not favorable towards religious institutions of their time, nor did they tolerate atheism of any type within their ranks. The 1943 Philosophical Dictionary defined Gottgläubig as an official designation for those who professed a specific kind of piety and morality, without being bound to a church denomination, whilst however also rejecting irreligion and godlessness. The term was officially recognized by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick on the 26th of November 1936, and it signified political disassociation from the churches, not an act of religious apostasy. A census in May 1939, six years into the Nazi era, indicated that 3.5% of the population self-identified as Gottgläubig, while 54% considered themselves Protestant and 41% considered themselves Catholic. The Nazi Party did not wish to tie itself to a particular Christian denomination, but with Christianity in general, and sought freedom of religion for all denominations so long as they did not endanger its existence or oppose the moral senses of the Germanic race. When Hitler and the NSDAP got into power in 1933, they sought to assert state control over the churches, on the one hand through the Reichskonkordat with the Roman Catholic Church, and the forced merger of the German Evangelical Church Confederation into the Protestant Reich Church on the other. This policy seemed to have gone relatively well until late 1936, when a gradual worsening of relations between the Nazi Party and the churches saw the rise of Kirchenaustritt, or leaving the Church. Although there was no top-down official directive to revoke church membership, some Nazi Party members started doing so voluntarily and put other members under pressure to follow their example. The Gottgläubigkeit was considered a form of Deism, and was predominantly based on creationist and deistic views. The movement was a unique blend of political and religious ideology, with the Nazis using the concept of a higher power to justify their actions while rejecting the institutional power of the churches. The Gottgläubige were not atheists, but they were also not members of any particular religious denomination, and they believed in a God without the trappings of organized religion.

The Modern Search for Meaning

In the 21st century, Deism continues to have advocates today, including with modern variants such as Christian deism and pandeism, and contemporary Deism attempts to integrate classical Deism with modern philosophy and the current state of scientific knowledge. There are a number of subcategories of modern Deism, including monodeism, the default standard concept of deism, pandeism, panendeism, spiritual deism, process deism, Christian deism, polydeism, scientific deism, and humanistic deism. Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives, while others see God and the universe in a co-creative process. Some deists view God in classical terms as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives, while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit who created the world, and then stepped back to observe. The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey report estimated that between 1990 and 2001 the number of self-identifying Deists grew from 6,000 to 49,000, representing about 0.02% of the U.S. population at the time. The 2008 ARIS survey found, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, that roughly 12% of Americans believe in a deist or paganistic concept of the Divine as a higher power rather than a personal God. The term ceremonial deism was coined in 1962 by the dean of Yale Law School and American legal scholar Eugene V. Rostow, and has been used since 1984 by the Supreme Court to assess exemptions from the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, thought to be expressions of cultural tradition and not earnest invocations of a deity. However, American academic and professor of philosophy Martha Nussbaum remarks that the term does not describe any school of thought within Deism itself. Recent philosophical discussions of Deism have been shaped by theologians such as Charles Hartshorne, who in the 1960s scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism in favor of a conception of God whose characteristics included absolute perfection in some respects and relative perfection in all others. Charles Taylor, in his 2007 book A Secular Age, showed the historical role of Deism, leading to what he calls an exclusive humanism, which invokes a moral order whose ontic commitment is wholly intra-human with no reference to transcendence. One of the special achievements of such deism-based humanism is that it discloses new, anthropocentric moral sources by which human beings are motivated and empowered to accomplish acts of mutual benefit. This is the province of a buffered, disengaged self, which is the locus of dignity, freedom, and discipline, and is endowed with a sense of human capability. According to Taylor, by the early 19th century this Deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed as an alternative to Christian faith in a personal God and an order of miracles and mystery. Some critics of Deism have accused adherents of facilitating the rise of nihilism, but the movement continues to evolve and adapt to the changing intellectual and cultural landscape of the modern world.