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Candle: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Candle
The earliest evidence of candle use dates back to the 7th century BC, found in an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto, Italy, where a candlestick was discovered alongside the dead. Before this era, ancient peoples relied on open fires, torches, and primitive oil lamps that had existed since the Paleolithic period. True candles, defined as a wick embedded in a solid flammable substance, could not have existed before the early Bronze Age because they required a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats. The first candles were not the elegant sticks we know today but rather plant materials dipped in animal fat, pitch, or oil. These early forms were likely used in Babylonian and Minoan cultures, and objects resembling candlesticks have been found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, though the candles themselves were crude compared to modern standards. In ancient Rome, true dipped candles made from tallow and beeswax were known, but they were expensive and limited to the wealthy, meaning oil lamps remained the primary lighting source for the common person. The word candle itself derives from the Latin word candere, meaning to shine, a linguistic root that has traveled through Old English and Middle English to reach the modern era.
The Church and The Elite
For centuries, the candle was a symbol of divine presence and social hierarchy, reserved almost exclusively for the church and the aristocracy. In medieval Europe, beeswax candles were the standard for church ceremonies because they burned cleanly without the smoky flame and unpleasant odor associated with tallow, which was made from rendered beef or mutton fat. The Christian church elevated the status of the candle, with wax candles recorded as Easter candles in Spain and Italy by the end of the 3rd century. By the 4th century, the festival of Candlemas was named after these candles, and Pope Sergius I instituted the procession of lighted candles, establishing a tradition that persists today. Papal bulls later decreed that tallow be excluded from use in altar candles, mandating a high beeswax content for the high altar. While the wealthy in Northern Europe, particularly in England, began using tallow candles in their homes by 1154, the common people relied on rushlights made of greased rushes. In the Middle East, during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material, often imported from long distances such as from Tunis to Egypt. The Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil was said to have spent 1.2 million silver dirhams annually on candles for his royal palaces, highlighting the immense cost and prestige associated with these objects. In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand across all socioeconomic classes for marriage ceremonies, yet candle makers in Safavid Iran held a relatively low social position, comparable to barbers and porters.
When did the earliest evidence of candle use appear in history?
The earliest evidence of candle use dates back to the 7th century BC, found in an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto, Italy. True candles required a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats and could not have existed before the early Bronze Age. Before this era, ancient peoples relied on open fires, torches, and primitive oil lamps that had existed since the Paleolithic period.
What materials were used to make candles in medieval Europe and the Middle East?
In medieval Europe, beeswax candles were the standard for church ceremonies because they burned cleanly without the smoky flame and unpleasant odor associated with tallow. Tallow was made from rendered beef or mutton fat and was used by the wealthy in Northern Europe by 1154, while common people relied on rushlights made of greased rushes. In the Middle East, beeswax was the dominant material during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, often imported from long distances such as from Tunis to Egypt.
How did the candle industry change during the 19th century?
The transformation of the candle from a luxury item to a mass-market commodity began in the 19th century with a series of scientific and mechanical breakthroughs. In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac separated stearin from animal fats, obtaining a patent in 1825 to produce candles that were harder and burned brighter than their predecessors. By the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian, creating a commercially viable method to produce inexpensive, high-quality candles that burned cleanly without the odor of tallow.
What is the chemical process behind candle combustion and how fast does a modern candle burn?
The combustion of a candle is a self-sustaining chemical process that involves complex interactions between heat, fuel, and oxygen. A modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 grams per minute, releasing heat at roughly 80 watts and producing light at about 13 lumens. The flame itself is divided into distinct zones, with the hottest part located just above the base of the flame, reaching temperatures of approximately 1,400 degrees Celsius.
How were candles used to measure time before the invention of the clock?
Before the invention of the clock, candles served as a reliable method of keeping time, leading to the development of the candle clock. The Song dynasty in China, which ruled from 960 to 1279, used candle clocks that had time measurements marked along the wax. By the 18th century, these devices were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle; as the candle melted, the weights would fall off and make a noise as they dropped into a bowl, signaling the passage of time.
Why are candles still popular in the 21st century despite electric lighting?
In the 21st century, the candle has found a new life as a tool for ambiance, scent, and social connection rather than a necessity for survival. Sales of scented candles have increased significantly in recent years, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns, as people sought to create warm, romantic, or comforting atmospheres in their homes. The candle has also become a powerful symbol in secular contexts, with candlelight vigils held in remembrance for a person, a cause, or an event, serving as a form of political action or protest.
The transformation of the candle from a luxury item to a mass-market commodity began in the 19th century with a series of scientific and mechanical breakthroughs. In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac separated stearin from animal fats, obtaining a patent in 1825 to produce candles that were harder and burned brighter than their predecessors. The true revolution in production arrived in 1834 when Joseph Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester, England, patented a machine that allowed for the continuous production of molded candles. This mechanized process used a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified, enabling the factory to produce about 1,500 candles per hour. By the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian, creating a commercially viable method to produce inexpensive, high-quality candles that burned cleanly without the odor of tallow. By the end of the 19th century, Price's Candles, based in London and founded by William Wilson in 1830, had become the largest candle manufacturer in the world. They pioneered the use of steam distillation to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil, and industrial greases. Despite these advances, the candle industry declined rapidly after the invention of the incandescent light bulb in 1879 and the introduction of kerosene lamps, forcing the candle to reinvent itself as a decorative and symbolic object rather than a primary source of illumination.
The Science of Flame
The combustion of a candle is a self-sustaining chemical process that involves complex interactions between heat, fuel, and oxygen. When a candle is lit, the heat melts and vaporizes a small amount of solid fuel, which combines with oxygen in the air to form a flame. This flame provides the heat necessary to melt the top of the solid fuel mass, which then moves upward through the wick via capillary action to be continually burnt. A modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 grams per minute, releasing heat at roughly 80 watts and producing light at about 13 lumens. The flame itself is divided into distinct zones, with the hottest part located just above the base of the flame, reaching temperatures of approximately 1,400 degrees Celsius. The visible yellow color of the flame is due to radiative emission from hot soot particles, while the blue color at the base is caused by chemiluminescence. The SI unit of luminous intensity, the candela, was originally based on the light emitted by a standard candle, though it is now defined more precisely. The wick plays a critical role in this process; if the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle, while if it is too small, the flame will be weak. Pre-19th century wicks required regular trimming with scissors or snuffers to prevent smoking, but modern wicks are constructed to curve over and incinerate themselves, ensuring a steady burn without human intervention.
Time and Tragedy
Before the invention of the clock, candles served as a reliable method of keeping time, leading to the development of the candle clock. The Song dynasty in China, which ruled from 960 to 1279, used candle clocks that had time measurements marked along the wax. By the 18th century, these devices were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle; as the candle melted, the weights would fall off and make a noise as they dropped into a bowl, signaling the passage of time. However, the candle also carried significant risks, as it remains a leading source of residential fires in the United States. According to the National Fire Protection Association, candles are responsible for almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire. A former safety concern involved the use of lead cores in wicks to keep them upright in container candles, which could vaporize and release lead vapors during burning. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s, replaced by zinc or zinc alloy cores. The liquid wax itself can cause skin burns, and glass candleholders can crack due to thermal shock when the candle burns down to the end. Users are advised to use candle snuffers to extinguish flames rather than blowing on them, as this cuts off the oxygen supply and prevents the release of soot and volatile organic compounds into the environment.
The Modern Glow
In the 21st century, the candle has found a new life as a tool for ambiance, scent, and social connection rather than a necessity for survival. Sales of scented candles have increased significantly in recent years, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns, as people sought to create warm, romantic, or comforting atmospheres in their homes. The candle has also become a powerful symbol in secular contexts, with candlelight vigils held in remembrance for a person, a cause, or an event, serving as a form of political action or protest. In religious settings, candles continue to play a vital role, from the Paschal candle carried in Easter processions to the yahrzeit candle burned in memory of the dead. The variety of materials has expanded to include coconut, soy, vegetable, and beeswax, offering non-toxic alternatives to traditional paraffin. Accessories have evolved to meet modern needs, with candle followers designed to contain melted wax and prevent mess, and glass holders that can be cracked by thermal shock if not used carefully. Despite the dominance of electric lighting, the candle remains a fixture in homes, churches, and ceremonies, bridging the gap between ancient tradition and modern aesthetics. The industry continues to adapt, with international standards ensuring safety and compliance, while the simple act of lighting a candle continues to evoke a sense of history, spirituality, and human connection.