Short answers, pulled from the story.
The earliest evidence of candle use dates back to the 7th century BC, found in an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto, Italy. True candles required a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats and could not have existed before the early Bronze Age. Before this era, ancient peoples relied on open fires, torches, and primitive oil lamps that had existed since the Paleolithic period.
In medieval Europe, beeswax candles were the standard for church ceremonies because they burned cleanly without the smoky flame and unpleasant odor associated with tallow. Tallow was made from rendered beef or mutton fat and was used by the wealthy in Northern Europe by 1154, while common people relied on rushlights made of greased rushes. In the Middle East, beeswax was the dominant material during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, often imported from long distances such as from Tunis to Egypt.
The transformation of the candle from a luxury item to a mass-market commodity began in the 19th century with a series of scientific and mechanical breakthroughs. In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac separated stearin from animal fats, obtaining a patent in 1825 to produce candles that were harder and burned brighter than their predecessors. By the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian, creating a commercially viable method to produce inexpensive, high-quality candles that burned cleanly without the odor of tallow.
The combustion of a candle is a self-sustaining chemical process that involves complex interactions between heat, fuel, and oxygen. A modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 grams per minute, releasing heat at roughly 80 watts and producing light at about 13 lumens. The flame itself is divided into distinct zones, with the hottest part located just above the base of the flame, reaching temperatures of approximately 1,400 degrees Celsius.
Before the invention of the clock, candles served as a reliable method of keeping time, leading to the development of the candle clock. The Song dynasty in China, which ruled from 960 to 1279, used candle clocks that had time measurements marked along the wax. By the 18th century, these devices were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle; as the candle melted, the weights would fall off and make a noise as they dropped into a bowl, signaling the passage of time.
In the 21st century, the candle has found a new life as a tool for ambiance, scent, and social connection rather than a necessity for survival. Sales of scented candles have increased significantly in recent years, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns, as people sought to create warm, romantic, or comforting atmospheres in their homes. The candle has also become a powerful symbol in secular contexts, with candlelight vigils held in remembrance for a person, a cause, or an event, serving as a form of political action or protest.