Bengal Subah
In 1575, the Battle of Tukaroi marked a turning point when Mughal forces under Akbar defeated Daud Khan Karrani, the independent ruler of Bengal. This victory initiated the absorption of the region into the vast Mughal Empire. The conflict continued until 1576 with the final defeat at Rajmahal, where Akbar declared Bengal one of twelve original Subahs or provinces. Resistance from local chiefs persisted for years after this initial conquest. By November 1586, Akbar issued a royal decree to standardize administration across the empire. Historian Tapan Raychaudhuri notes that true consolidation and pacification began in 1594. Local landlords known as Baro-Bhuyans held significant power during the transition from Afghan to Mughal rule. Families like the Rajas of Chandradwip, Malla, and Shushang had ruled independently since ancient times. Isa Khan emerged as a notable figure among these subjugated chiefs by the 17th century. The Mughals established Dhaka as a new imperial metropolis starting in 1610. This city featured fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces, and mosques serving as the capital for seventy-five years. It was renamed Jahangir Nagar to honor Emperor Jahangir. In 1603, Arakanese forces attacked the region around Dhaka. Man Singh, who served as Subahdar from 1602 to 1604, formed a coastal navy using Portuguese pirates to repel amphibious invasions. Cooch Behar joined Bengal Subah in 1609 while Kamrup followed in 1612. Chittagong was conquered between 1665 and 1666 defeating the Burmese Kingdom of Arakan. The port city was renamed Islamabad after its re-annexation. A treaty with the Chakma Circle in 1713 made the Chittagong Hill Tracts a tributary state.
Dhaka became the financial capital of the empire with a population exceeding one million people during the 17th century. The city housed an estimated eighty thousand skilled textile weavers producing fine muslin cloth known globally as daka. Bengal exported silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural produce to markets across Asia and Europe. Richard Maxwell Eaton notes that European companies set up numerous trading posts throughout the region. Chittagong served as the largest seaport connecting trade routes to Arakan, Ayuthya, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mocha, and the Maldives. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output at two hundred twenty-three thousand tons annually during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This figure dwarfs the twenty-three thousand tons produced by nineteen North American colonies between 1769 and 1771. Shipyards in Chittagong and Sandwip built warships for Ottoman sultans during the 17th century. An innovation called the flushed deck design created stronger hulls less prone to leaking than traditional European stepped decks. The British East India Company later duplicated these designs in the 1760s improving seaworthiness significantly. Factories operated in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Patna, Sonargaon, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar, Balasore, Pipeli, and Hugli. Bengal accounted for forty percent of Dutch imports from Asia including over fifty percent of textiles and around eighty percent of silks. Grain wages for weaving and spinning were comparable to Britain in the mid-18th century according to Parthasarathi. Lower food prices due to increased agricultural productivity gave Indian textiles a price advantage globally. The Jagat Seth Family emerged as the wealthiest bankers in the region facilitating trade and finance.
Murshid Quli Khan rose from prime minister to become the hereditary Nawab of Bengal in 1717. He founded the Nasiri dynasty after Mughal Court upgraded his position following conflicts with Viceroy Azim-us-Shan. Alivardi Khan established the Afsar dynasty in 1740 after staging a coup at the Battle of Giria. These rulers governed as independent monarchs despite issuing coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor. Under early nawabs, Bengal contributed more than half the funds flowing into the imperial treasury in Delhi. Murshidabad became the central base for these independent rulers located strategically within Bengal. European colonial powers referred to them as Nawabs or Nababs while they maintained de facto sovereignty. The British East India Company eventually rivaled their authority leading to conflict. Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 installing Mir Jafar as puppet ruler. Mir Qasim attempted unsuccessfully to dislodge the British before being defeated at Buxar in 1764. Shah Alam II granted Diwani rights to the Company in 1765 and Nizamat rights in 1793. This transfer left the Nawab formally powerless as a titular monarch. The South Indian Kingdom of Mysore briefly surpassed Bengal as the wealthiest monarchy under Tipu Sultan before ending with the Anglo-Mysore War.
The resurgent Maratha Empire launched raids against Bengal starting in 1741 lasting until early 1751. These conflicts included battles at Katwa, Burdwan, and Rani Sarai where Alivardi Khan repelled attacks. Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur led expeditions establishing de facto control over Orissa which was incorporated into the Maratha Empire in 1752. Bargis or Maratha warriors committed atrocities causing four hundred thousand civilian Bengalis to flee westward. Textile weavers, silk winders, and mulberry cultivators were massacred creating widespread economic devastation. Contemporary accounts describe scenes of mass gang-rape against women alongside mutilation of survivors. Alivardi Khan agreed to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually as chauth tribute to prevent further invasions. The nawab also paid Rs. 3.2 million toward arrears for preceding years. Chauth payments continued annually up to 1758 until British occupation began. The Nawab's army grew to seventy thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry during the Second Maratha invasion of 1743. Military supremacy over Arakan and Tripura relied on large cannons and notable artillery capabilities. Fortifications like Idrakpur Fort, Sonakanda Fort, Hajiganj Fort, Lalbagh Fort, and Jangalbari Fort dotted the region.
The Battle of Plassey in 1757 brought about by Mir Jafar's betrayal allowed the East India Company to defeat Siraj-ud-Daulah. Administrative control over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa passed to the company after this victory. The right to collect taxes was granted following the Battle of Buxar in 1765. Bengal Presidency was formed when these territories were annexed into the British colonial empire in 1793. European powers carved out smaller colonies including Dutch settlements at Hugli-Chuchura, French Chandernagore, Danish Serampore, and Ostend Bankipur. The Indian mutiny of 1857 formally ended Company rule replacing it with direct British Raj administration. R.C. Dutt argued that plundering Bengal directly contributed to Britain's Industrial Revolution through capital investment. Domestic industries expanded for decades even after Plassey according to Indrajit Ray. Major deindustrialization occurred as late as the 1830s to 1850s due to price manipulation and state discrimination starting from the 1790s. Bengali entrepreneurs continued in cotton and silk textiles where domestic market supports existed. The Great Bengal famine of 1770 reduced population estimates of thirty million by as much as a third.
Mughal architecture proliferated across Bengal during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries beginning with Kherua Mosque in Bogra built in 1582. Dhaka hosted the most lavish imperial style featuring Lalbagh Fort designed as an elaborate complex of gardens fountains mosques tombs audience halls and walled enclosures. The Great Caravanserai and Shaista Khan Caravenserai served as commercial centers within the city. Other monuments included Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah constructed in 1640 Sat Gambuj Mosque completed around 1776 Shahbaz Khan Mosque finished in 1679 and Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque dated 1704. Murshidabad became a haven for Mughal architecture under the nawabs with Caravanserai Mosque standing out as its most prominent monument built in 1723. Rural hinterlands saw Bengali Islamic styles flourish blending with Mughal elements exemplified by Atiya Mosque in Tangail from 1609. Terracotta Hindu temple masterpieces emerged including Kantajew Temple completed in 1704 and temples of Bishnupur spanning 1600 to 1729. Jamdani fabric meaning flower in Persian reflected authentic Bengali art pioneered by Persian weavers then passed to juhulas or Muslim artisans. Dhaka housed over eighty thousand weavers producing geometric floral designs similar to Iranian buta motifs and Western paisley patterns. Provincial Mughal painting flourished in Murshidabad during the 18th century alongside scroll painting and ivory sculptures.
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Common questions
When did the Mughal Empire officially establish Bengal Subah as one of its twelve original provinces?
The Mughal Empire established Bengal Subah in 1576 following the final defeat at Rajmahal. This event marked the end of Daud Khan Karrani's independent rule and initiated the region's absorption into the vast empire.
What was the population and economic output of Dhaka during the 17th century under the Bengal Subah?
Dhaka became a financial capital with a population exceeding one million people during the 17th century. The city housed an estimated eighty thousand skilled textile weavers producing fine muslin cloth known globally as daka.
Who founded the Nasiri dynasty that ruled Bengal after the Mughal period ended in 1717?
Murshid Quli Khan rose from prime minister to become the hereditary Nawab of Bengal in 1717. He founded the Nasiri dynasty after the Mughal Court upgraded his position following conflicts with Viceroy Azim-us-Shan.
How many civilian Bengalis fled westward due to atrocities committed by Bargis or Maratha warriors between 1741 and 1758?
Bargis or Maratha warriors caused four hundred thousand civilian Bengalis to flee westward during their raids. These conflicts included battles at Katwa, Burdwan, and Rani Sarai where Alivardi Khan repelled attacks.
When did the British East India Company gain Diwani rights to collect taxes in Bengal Subah?
Shah Alam II granted Diwani rights to the Company in 1765 following the Battle of Buxar. Nizamat rights were subsequently transferred in 1793 when the Bengal Presidency was formed.