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— CH. 1 · ORIGINS AND AKBAR'S REFORMS —

Army of the Mughal Empire

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  • In the early 1500s, a Central Asian warlord named Babur crossed the Khyber Pass with an army of horse archers to claim India. His forces relied on traditional Turko-Mongol tactics that emphasized speed and shock charges over static defense. The Mughal Empire began as a cavalry-based force imported from the steppes of Central Asia. By the time his grandson Akbar took the throne in 1556, the empire needed a more permanent structure to govern its vast new territories. Akbar reorganized the military into the Mansabdari system, which became the backbone of imperial power for centuries. Under this system, officers called mansabdars received ranks based on the number of horsemen they could provide. A typical rank ranged from 10 troopers at the lowest level up to 5,000 at the highest. Some princes commanded units of 25,000 men. These officers were responsible for recruiting and maintaining their own quotas of soldiers. They reported directly to the Mir Bakshi, who served as the head of military intelligence and administration. Historian Jos Gommans noted that the emperor personally appointed these officers to ensure loyalty. Foreigners like the Englishman William Hawkins occasionally held mansabdar positions, though such appointments remained rare. Hawkins recorded names of about 41 officers who commanded between 3,000 and 5,000 zat or horsemen each. This system allowed the Mughals to project power across diverse regions while maintaining central control over provincial governors known as subahdars.

  • Historical records regarding the size of the Mughal army vary wildly depending on the source consulted. During the 17th century, some estimates placed infantry numbers between 911,400 and 4,049,097 men. Cavalry figures ranged from 342,696 to a staggering 15 million riders according to certain accounts. Abul Fazl's census suggested a total force of roughly 4.4 million soldiers, with less than half a million trained as cavalry. Modern Indian historians have proposed even higher figures, reaching up to 26 million personnel. Political scientist J.C. Sharman viewed the empire as one of Asia's great powers matching the Ming dynasty in population and military strength. Stephen Rosen calculated that conservative estimates for Indian peninsular military personnel per capita rivaled contemporary Europe at the end of the Thirty Years' War. He used an estimate of 550,000 personnel for the Mughal military against a European population of 105 million west of the Ural Mountains. Kaushik Roy quoted imperial revenue accumulation of 12 billion dams to support 342,696 cavalry and over 4 million infantry. F. Valentijn estimated numbers exceeding 4 million in 1707. Abraham Eraly referenced Tapan Raychaudhuri's work suggesting raw potential bodies reached 26 million including auxiliary forces. These massive numbers illustrate the scale of the empire but also highlight the difficulty in verifying exact troop counts across centuries of conflicting chronicles.

  • The Mughal imperial camp functioned as a mobile administrative capital during military expeditions and royal tours. It required hundreds of thousands of people and 50,000 horses or oxen just to transport tents, baggage, and equipment. Vincent Smith described this moving city as unparalleled in its complexity. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier observed that travel methods were convenient compared to Italy or France. More than 2,000 personnel and laborers constructed camps ahead of the main force. Akbar's entourage included small hunting camps and large campaign encampments capable of accommodating 300,000 people total. The large camp traveled an estimated 6 to 16 kilometers per day. Agents, scouts, and workers prepared roads, bridges, and campsites before the army arrived. They purchased food and fuel while ensuring cooperation from local rulers. Niccolao Manucci witnessed the grandeur of the entourage and wrote that it surpassed any European ruler's display. Abul Fazl stated that each encampment required 100 elephants, 500 camels, 400 carts, and 100 bearers for carriage alone. Five hundred troopers and mansabdars escorted these massive gatherings. A thousand Farrashes native to Iran, Turan, and Hindustan provided additional security. Pioneers, water-carriers, carpenters, tent makers, torch bearers, leather workers, and sweepers all served within the mobile capital. Antoni de Montserrat accompanied Akbar on a Kabul expedition and gave detailed accounts of this magnitude. The marches followed Persian traditions of gardens and extravagant tents inspired by texts like the Epic of Gilgamesh and Zoroastrian scriptures.

  • Around the 17th century, the dynasty ruled the world's wealthiest empire with millions of regular soldiers. Political scientist J.C. Sharman viewed the empire as one of Asia's great powers matching the Ming dynasty in population, riches, and military power unmatched by their European contemporaries. Stephen Rosen calculated that even conservative estimates for Indian peninsular military personnel per capita would at least rival contemporary Europe at the end of the Thirty Years' War. Using his own estimate of 550,000 personnel for the Mughal military and a population of 105 million for Europe west of the Ural Mountains, he found comparable ratios. The potential manpower reached 911,400 cavalry and infantry according to Kaushik Roy. He quoted imperial revenue accumulation of 12 billion dams to support these forces. F. Valentijn estimated numbers higher than 4 million in 1707. During Shah Jahan's reign in 1647, the army composed about 911,400 infantry and cavalry combined. From 1627 to 1658, it included 47,000 mounted musketeers, foot musketeers, gunners, and archers. Antoni de Montserrat recorded that Akbar could muster 50,000 cavalry, 500 war elephants, and countless infantry during the Mughal-Afghan Wars alone. Dirk H.A. Kolff claimed this high estimate was essentially an inventory of military labor available for hiring in a single operation. Abul Fazl noted multiple ethnicities including Persians, Turkmen, Chagatais, Uzbeks, Pashtuns, Gujaratis, Pathans, Rajputs, and Balochis served within the ranks.

  • The adoption of gunpowder warfare led historians Marshall Hodgson and William H. McNeill to term the Mughals a gunpowder empire. The army employed heavy cannons, light artillery, grenades, rockets, and heavy mortars among other weapons. Heavy cannons were expensive and difficult to transport, requiring elephants and oxen to drag them across terrain. Karkhanas or workshops in Delhi and Lahore produced arms, ammunition, and imperial stable-harnesses using iron, copper, and other metals. Main weapons included swords, spears, and bows and arrows. The Firangi sword represented European style straight blades used until the Indian Mutiny in 1857-58. Rajput Shamsherbaz infantry carried halberds and maces with two-handed swords similar to German Doppelsöldners. Muskets became widespread under Akbar after Portuguese arrival in 1498 brought matchlock technology. Expert armorers copied these weapons for local use, creating indigenous matchlocks called Toradar. Cavalry troopers wore heavy chain mail armor and acted as mounted archers armed with composite or steel bows four feet long. When facing difficult situations, cavalrymen fought on foot using Utara tactics rather than retreating. Mughal armor was lighter than contemporary European suits due to hot climates but heavier than south Indian outfits. Full sets consisted of steel plates securing head, breast, and limbs over cotton or linen quilted garments resisting swords or bullets.

  • The Mughals maintained a considerable navy known as the Amla-e-Nawara. In Dhaka alone, the fleet numbered 768 ships including 933 sailors of Portuguese origin and 8,112 artillery personnel in the east. To support maritime operations, grand vizier Mir Jumla repaired and fortified three river forts: Hajiganj Fort, Sonakanda Fort, and Idrakpur Fort between 1660 and 1663. The navy's main duty involved controlling piracy though it sometimes engaged in war. Standard surveys of maritime technology from 1958 noted that Bengali expertise on shipbuilding was duplicated by the British East India Company in the 1760s leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness for European ships during the Industrial Revolution. Among them were 923 Portuguese sailors serving Akbar. Characteristic warships called Ghurab warships outfitted with 14 guns had crews numbering 50 to 60 members. Officers conscripted from Dutch, Portuguese, British, and Russian naval officers commanded these vessels. Another characteristic included strength and size due to Bengali shipbuilding skills. Naval forces of Janjira state subsidized by Aurangzeb constructed large ships like frigates and men-of-war reaching 1500 tons. The Ganj-i-Sawai reached 1600 tonnes weight with 800 onboard guns at its disposal. For two decades at the end of the 16th century, Mughals faced difficulties due to rainy climate and geography of Bengal containing large portions of the Ganges River delta resulting in amphibious operations. Opponents included local warlords owning large quantities of warships assisted by pirates from Portuguese Goa region along with some Dutch ships.

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Mughal–Afghan Wars

Common questions

When did Babur cross the Khyber Pass to establish the Mughal Empire?

Babur crossed the Khyber Pass in the early 1500s to claim India with an army of horse archers. His forces relied on traditional Turko-Mongol tactics that emphasized speed and shock charges over static defense.

What was the Mansabdari system under Akbar in 1556?

Akbar reorganized the military into the Mansabdari system when he took the throne in 1556 to govern vast new territories. Under this system, officers called mansabdars received ranks based on the number of horsemen they could provide ranging from 10 troopers at the lowest level up to 5,000 at the highest.

How many soldiers were estimated to be in the Mughal Army during the 17th century?

Historical records regarding the size of the Mughal army vary wildly depending on the source consulted. During the 17th century some estimates placed infantry numbers between 911,400 and 4,049,097 men while cavalry figures ranged from 342,696 to a staggering 15 million riders according to certain accounts.

Who commanded the Mughal imperial camp and how large was it?

The Mughal imperial camp functioned as a mobile administrative capital requiring hundreds of thousands of people and 50,000 horses or oxen just to transport tents baggage and equipment. Akbar's entourage included small hunting camps and large campaign encampments capable of accommodating 300,000 people total.

What weapons did the Mughal Empire use for gunpowder warfare?

The adoption of gunpowder warfare led historians Marshall Hodgson and William H. McNeill to term the Mughals a gunpowder empire. The army employed heavy cannons light artillery grenades rockets and heavy mortars among other weapons including swords spears and bows and arrows.

How many ships were in the Amla-e-Nawara navy in Dhaka during the 17th century?

In Dhaka alone the fleet numbered 768 ships including 933 sailors of Portuguese origin and 8,112 artillery personnel in the east. To support maritime operations grand vizier Mir Jumla repaired and fortified three river forts: Hajiganj Fort Sonakanda Fort and Idrakpur Fort between 1660 and 1663.

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