Andean civilizations
The first humans arrived in South America via the Isthmus of Panama around 15,000 BCE. These early groups lived as hunter-gatherers during what archaeologists call the Lithic Period. Plants began to be widely cultivated during the ensuing Andean preceramic period. The Caral-Supe civilization emerged at 3500 BCE and lasted until 1800 BCE. This society included as many as 30 major population centers in north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas. Complex society in Norte Chico arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia. It was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. The alternative name Caral-Supe comes from the Sacred City of Caral in the Supe Valley. Distinct religious centres emerged such as the Kotosh Religious Tradition in the highlands.
Scholars have deemed Andean civilizations one of six or seven pristine civilizations globally. A pristine civilization developed independently without external influences. The concept refers to societies that are not derivatives of other cultures. Due to isolation from other civilizations, indigenous people created unique solutions to environmental challenges. Andean civilizations lacked several characteristics distinguishing them from Old World cultures. They did not possess a written language. Instead they used the quipu system of knotted and colored strings. Few quipus survive and scholars have never fully deciphered them. Some believe the cords recorded numerical data while others suggest narrative communication. The use of the quipu dates back at least to the Wari Empire between 600 and 1000 CE. It may even reach the earlier Caral/Norte Chico civilization of the third millennium BCE.
Agriculture in South America began in coastal Ecuador around 8000 BCE with squash domestication by the Las Vegas culture. The greatest contribution of Andean civilization to the modern world was its plants. The Andeans cultivated an estimated 70 different plants. Important crops included potatoes, quinoa, tomatoes, chile peppers, cotton, coca, tobacco, pineapples, peanuts, and beans. Animals domesticated were llamas and guinea pigs. Environmental challenges required sophisticated agricultural technology. Farmers developed terraces known as andén to manage steep terrain. They exploited microclimates and practiced selective breeding. Societies established colonies at different elevations through vertical archipelago systems. Irrigation was essential for agriculture on the hyper-arid desert coast. In the mountains freezing temperatures could occur every month above certain altitudes. Freezing conditions limited farming possibilities in highland regions.
The Chavín culture flourished from 900 BCE to 200 BCE in the Peruvian highlands. Chavin de Huantar served as an important ritual center dating to around 1500 BCE. The Nazca culture existed from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru. They created geoglyphs commonly known as the Nazca lines. Their underground aqueduct system called puquios still functions today. The Moche civilization rose from about 100 CE to 800 CE in northern Peru. They produced elaborately painted ceramics and gold work. The Wari civilization flourished from 500 to 1000 CE in south-central Andes areas. Pikillaqta ruins sit a short distance southeast of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca. Tiwanaku stood near the southeastern shore of Lake Titicaca in western Bolivia. Pedro Cieza de León first recorded the site in written history during 1549. The Chimú culture arose about 900 CE with its capital at Chan Chan.
The Inca Empire became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Its administrative political and military center was located in Cusco. The civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. From 1438 to 1533 CE the Incas incorporated large portions of western South America. They used methods ranging from conquest to peaceful assimilation. The empire included Peru southwest Ecuador western and south central Bolivia northwest Argentina northern Chile and parts of southwest Colombia. The last Inca stronghold fell to Spanish forces in 1572. The Timoto Cuica people of Venezuela remained outside the Inca orbit. The Inca governed their patchwork of languages cultures and peoples along traditional Andean lines. Their road system encompassed most of the Andean civilization area.
Spanish colonizers arrived in the Andes during the 16th century. They eventually subjugated indigenous kingdoms and incorporated the region into the Spanish Empire. The Inca ruler Topa Inca Yupanqui conquered the Chimú around 1470 CE. This occurred just fifty years before the arrival of the Spanish in the region. Spanish chroniclers recorded accounts of Chimú culture from individuals who lived before the conquest. The Diaguita culture formed in 1000 CE after emerging from the Las Ánimas culture. The Calchaquí tribe fought against expansion by both the Inca and Spanish Empires until surrendering in 1665. The Muisca were encountered by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada's troops in spring 1537. Spanish rule transformed many elements including religion and architecture throughout the Andean region.
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Common questions
When did the first humans arrive in South America?
The first humans arrived in South America via the Isthmus of Panama around 15,000 BCE. These early groups lived as hunter-gatherers during what archaeologists call the Lithic Period.
What is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and when did it exist?
The Caral-Supe civilization emerged at 3500 BCE and lasted until 1800 BCE. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and included as many as 30 major population centers in north-central coastal Peru.
How did Andean civilizations record information without a written language?
Andean civilizations used the quipu system of knotted and colored strings to record data instead of writing. The use of the quipu dates back at least to the Wari Empire between 600 and 1000 CE and may even reach the earlier Caral/Norte Chico civilization of the third millennium BCE.
Which crops were most important to Andean agriculture?
Important crops cultivated by Andeans included potatoes, quinoa, tomatoes, chile peppers, cotton, coca, tobacco, pineapples, peanuts, and beans. They also domesticated llamas and guinea pigs to manage environmental challenges.
When did the Inca Empire fall to Spanish forces?
The last Inca stronghold fell to Spanish forces in 1572. The empire had incorporated large portions of western South America from 1438 to 1533 CE before its final collapse.