Short answers, pulled from the story.
Alexis Clairaut published the first reference to intermolecular forces in 1743. His work titled Théorie de la figure de la Terre contained the initial description of microscopic forces acting between particles.
Hydrogen bonds have a dissociation energy of about 4 to 50 kilojoules per mole. This energy range makes them stronger than dipole-dipole interactions but weaker than covalent bonds.
The London dispersion force arises from random fluctuations in electron density within any atom or molecule. Unlike other forces that require permanent dipoles, this interaction is present in all materials and is the dominant component of van der Waals interactions.
The interaction between a doubly charged phosphate anion and a single charged ammonium cation accounts for about 10 kilojoules per mole of energy. This energy value is additive and linear with respect to charge.
Gases condense into liquids or solids when the gas is made sufficiently dense for attractive forces to overcome thermal motion. Lower temperature favors the formation of a condensed phase where there is a balance between attractive and repulsive forces.
Scientists like Laplace, Gauss, Maxwell, Boltzmann, and Pauling later expanded on Alexis Clairaut's initial insights. They created a complex framework to understand how these forces shape the universe.