Zapotec civilization
In the late 6th century BC, three distinct societies occupied the Y-shaped Central Valleys of Oaxaca. They lived in separate areas divided by a no-man's-land in the middle. Archaeological evidence shows burned temples and sacrificed war captives from this era. These findings suggest fierce competition between the three groups. At the end of the Rosario phase, which spanned from 700 to 500 BC, San José Mogote lost most of its population. A nearby settlement in the Etla Valley also suffered massive depopulation during this same period.
A new large settlement rose on top of a mountain overlooking the three valleys. This place later became known as Monte Albán. Early pottery found there resembles styles from San José Mogote. This similarity suggests people who left that older city populated the new one. Walls and fortifications appeared around the site during the archaeological phase called Monte Alban 2. This phase lasted roughly from 100 BC to 200 AD. The construction likely responded to a military threat facing the region. American archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery compared this process to synoikism in ancient Greece. Smaller dispersed populations congregated into a central city to meet external threats.
The Zapotec state began expanding during the late Monte Alban 1 phase between 400 and 100 BC. Growth continued throughout the Monte Alban 2 phase from 100 BC to AD 200. By 200 BC, rulers seized control of provinces outside the valley of Oaxaca. No surrounding province could compete with them politically or militarily at that time. Influence extended from Quiotepec in the North to Ocelotepec and Chiltepec in the South by 200 AD.
Archaeologist Alfonso Caso excavated Building J on the main plaza of Monte Albán in the 1930s. This structure resembles an arrowhead unlike other monumental buildings nearby. It displays more than 40 carved stones with hieroglyphic writing. Each glyph group depicts a head wearing an elaborate head dress. These heads represent rulers of conquered provinces. Heads turned upside down symbolize rulers killed when their provinces were taken by force. Upright heads may represent those who did not resist annexation and had their lives spared. Scholars refer to this building as The Conquest Slab because it records military victories.
The 1450s saw Aztec forces invading the Valley of Oaxaca to extend hegemony over the area. The region was conquered by the Aztecs in 1458. In 1486, they established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac now called El Fortín. This fort enforced collection of tribute payments throughout Oaxaca. The last battle between Aztecs and Zapotecs occurred between 1497 and 1502 under ruler Ahuizotl. That conflict took place at Guiengola, a fortified city in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
King Cosijoeza ordered his people not to confront Spaniards when news arrived that Aztecs were defeated. He sent a delegation to seek an alliance with Hernán Cortés instead. On the 25th of November 1521, Francisco de Orozco arrived in the Valley of Oaxaca. Both Zapotecs and Mixtecs submitted to rule shortly after. Historian William B. Taylor noted peaceful conquest spared the valley from loss of life experienced elsewhere. De Orozco did meet resistance in Antequera which was subdued by end of 1521.
After 1526, Zapotec territory became part of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca within the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Hernan Cortéz controlled this region during early colonial administration. Starting in 1528, Dominican friars established permanent residence in Antequerea. The Bishopric of Oaxaca formed formally in 1535 bringing Catholic priests in ever-increasing numbers. Settlers arriving from Spain brought domestic animals never seen before in Oaxaca including horses, cows, goats, sheep, chickens, mules and oxen.
A series of devastating epidemics struck native populations decades following Spanish encounter. Before the first century ended, nineteen major epidemics had come and gone. Exposure included smallpox, chicken pox, diphtheria, influenza, scarlet fever, measles, typhoid, mumps, cocoliztli and other hemorrhagic diseases. Ms. Romero documented population decline from 1.5 million people in 1520 to just 150,000 by 1650. Over time however the population of Oaxaca rebounded significantly despite these catastrophic losses.
Zapotec languages belong to a family called Oto-Manguean which branched off around 1500 BC. Today there are seven distinct Zapotec languages and over 100 dialects spoken across Northern Sierra, Central Valleys, Southern Sierra, Isthmus of Tehuantepec and Pacific Coast. Migration has spread speakers into Mexico City and Los Angeles CA. The language functions as a tone system where meaning depends on voice pitch or tonemes. Up to four distinct tonemes exist including high, low, rising and falling sounds essential for understanding words.
Archaeologists found extended text in a glyphic script at Monte Albán. Some signs recognize calendar information but the full script remains undeciphered. Execution appears cruder than later Classic Maya writing suggesting less phonetic complexity. Earliest known artifact with Zapotec writing is Danzante stone officially Monument 3 found in San José Mogote. It dates roughly between 500 and 600 BC showing a dead captive with two glyphic signs possibly his name. Doubts exist regarding this dating since monument may have been reused later. Script went out of use during late Classic period.
Central Valleys join at altitude about 4500 feet above sea level forming three broad valleys named Etla, Ocotlán and Mitla. Mountains surround valley with Sierra Norte north and Tlacolula mountains southeast. Environment suited well for agriculture considered one cradles of maize cultivation. Valley soil unaffected by erosion seen today when oak and pine forests covered surrounding mountains before logging decimated them. Dry season runs November until May allowing planting twice along rivers where water flows periodically floods Atoyac River from northwest to south.
Zapotecs used canal irrigation systems bringing water to crops elsewhere away from riverbanks. Water came from small streams enabling transport to Monte Albán situated 400 meters above valley floor. Archaeologists discovered remains of dam and canal on southeastern flank mountain though insufficient alone supporting all population assumed many other systems existed. Crops grown valley not enough sustain rapid growth Monte Alban I phase so farming occurred foothills less fertile soil requiring artificial irrigation. Innovation enabled payment tribute Spanish conquerors creating surplus feed despite natural disasters disease.
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Common questions
When did the Zapotec civilization begin to form in the Valley of Oaxaca?
The Zapotec civilization began forming in the late 6th century BC when three distinct societies occupied the Y-shaped Central Valleys of Oaxaca. Archaeological evidence from this era shows burned temples and sacrificed war captives indicating fierce competition between these groups.
Who founded the city of Monte Albán and when was it established?
People who left San José Mogote populated the new settlement that became known as Monte Albán during the Rosario phase which spanned from 700 to 500 BC. Walls and fortifications appeared around the site during the Monte Alban 2 phase lasting roughly from 100 BC to 200 AD in response to military threats.
What happened to the Zapotec population after Spanish contact in 1521?
Ms. Romero documented a population decline from 1.5 million people in 1520 to just 150,000 by 1650 due to nineteen major epidemics including smallpox and typhoid. Despite these catastrophic losses the population of Oaxaca rebounded significantly over time.
How many Zapotec languages exist today and where are they spoken?
Today there are seven distinct Zapotec languages and over 100 dialects spoken across Northern Sierra Central Valleys Southern Sierra Isthmus of Tehuantepec and Pacific Coast. Migration has spread speakers into Mexico City and Los Angeles CA while the language functions as a tone system with up to four distinct tonemes.
When did Aztec forces conquer the Valley of Oaxaca and what fort did they build?
The region was conquered by the Aztecs in 1458 and they established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac now called El Fortín in 1486. This fort enforced collection of tribute payments throughout Oaxaca until the last battle between Aztecs and Zapotecs occurred between 1497 and 1502 under ruler Ahuizotl.