Yttrium
In 1787, a part-time chemist named Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby. He thought it was an unknown mineral containing tungsten and sent samples to other scientists for analysis. The rock received the name ytterbite because of its origin point. Johan Gadolin worked at the Royal Academy of Åbo when he identified a new oxide within that sample in 1789. He published his completed analysis four years later in 1794. Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed this identification two years after Gadolin's work ended in 1797. Ekeberg named the new substance yttria. Scientists believed earths could be reduced to their elements during those decades following Antoine Lavoisier's modern definition. This belief meant finding a new earth equaled discovering the element inside it. Friedrich Wöhler is credited with first isolating the metal in 1828 by reacting a volatile chloride with potassium. In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander discovered three oxides within samples of yttria. These included white yttrium oxide, yellow terbium oxide, and rose-colored erbium oxide. A fourth oxide called ytterbium oxide appeared in 1878 through Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac. New elements were isolated from each of these oxides over time. Each element took its name from Ytterby, the village near the quarry where they were found. Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed gadolinite in honor of Gadolin since yttria was actually a mineral. The chemical symbol Yt remained in use until the early 1920s when Y became common.
Yttrium exists as a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous transition metal located in group 3. It shows less electronegativity than scandium above it and zirconium below it on the periodic table. However, lanthanide contraction makes it less electronegative than lutetium to its right. Both scandium and yttrium sit between europium and gadolinium regarding electronegativity values. Pure yttrium remains relatively stable in air while in bulk form due to passivation. A protective oxide film forms on the surface reaching up to 10 micrometers thick. This film develops when heated to 750 degrees Celsius inside water vapor. Finely divided shavings or turnings ignite easily in air at temperatures exceeding 400 degrees Celsius. Heating the metal to 1000 degrees Celsius in nitrogen creates yttrium nitride. Chemical similarities to lanthanides are so strong that the element groups with them as rare-earth material. Yttrium resembles terbium and dysprosium more closely than its neighbor scandineum in reactivity order. The atomic radius similarity attributes itself to the lanthanide contraction effect despite being one row down. Yttrium is almost exclusively trivalent unlike half the lanthanides which show other valences. Only four of fifteen lanthanides have these other valences important in aqueous solution. As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium gives up all three valence electrons to form compounds. Yttrium(III) oxide appears as a six-coordinate white solid known as yttria. Water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate salts exist alongside soluble bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate, and sulfate forms. The ion remains colorless in solution due to absent d and f electron shells. Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids do not rapidly attack yttrium while other strong acids do. Halogens react with yttrium above roughly 200 degrees Celsius to form trihalides like fluoride or chloride. Carbon, phosphorus, selenium, silicon, and sulfur all form binary compounds at elevated temperatures.
Yttrium within the Solar System formed through stellar nucleosynthesis processes mostly via s-process accounting for about 72 percent. The r-process contributed approximately 28 percent during supernova explosions involving rapid neutron capture. Pulsating red giant stars host slow neutron captures creating most solar system yttrium. Mira serves as an example type of red giant star where this creation occurred. Yttrium isotopes rank among common products from nuclear fission of uranium in reactors and explosions. Nuclear waste management focuses on Y-91 and Y-93 with half-lives of 58.51 days and 64 hours respectively. Y-91 exists in secular equilibrium with long-lived parent strontium-90 having a 29-year half-life. Only one stable isotope Y-89 occurs naturally in Earth's crust despite group 3 elements having odd atomic numbers. Scandium possesses one stable isotope while yttrium itself has only that single natural occurrence. Electron emission favors isotopes around mass numbers 90, 138, and 208 due to low neutron-capture cross-sections. These stable nuclei contain 50, 82, and 126 neutrons respectively resulting in higher abundance levels. At least 32 synthetic isotopes range from atomic mass number 76 to 108 observed so far. The least stable variant shows a half-life of just 25 milliseconds while the most stable reaches 106.629 days. Isotopes below mass 88 decay mainly by positron emission forming strontium isotopes. Those at or above 90 decay primarily via electron emission creating zirconium isotopes. Minor beta delayed neutron emission paths exist for isotopes at or above 97. Twenty metastable excited isomers span mass numbers from 78 to 102. Multiple excitation states appear for both Y-89 and Y-91. Some isomers like Y-91 show longer half-lives than ground states through beta decay mechanisms.
Yttrium concentrates within heavy rare-earth elements group HREE despite lower atomic mass compared to others. Rare-earth minerals come mainly from four sources including bastnäsite containing average 0.1 percent yttrium. Mountain Pass mine in California supplied bastnäsite from the 1960s until the 1990s making the United States largest producer then. Monazite deposits found in India and Brazil during early 20th century became major producers for first half that century. Xenotime phosphate ore contains up to 60 percent yttrium as yttrium phosphate YPO. Bayan Obo deposit in China represents largest mine since Mountain Pass closure in 1990s. Ion absorption clays weathering products of granite contain only 1 percent REEs but final concentrate reaches 8 percent yttrium. These clays reside mostly in southern China regions. Dissolving mixed oxide ores in sulfuric acid allows fractionation by ion exchange chromatography methods. Adding oxalic acid precipitates yttrium oxalate which converts to oxide upon heating under oxygen. Reacting resulting yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride yields yttrium fluoride. Quaternary ammonium salts keep most yttrium in aqueous phase while counter-ions remove light or heavy lanthanides. This process obtains salts reaching 99.999 percent purity levels. Annual world production reached specific amounts by 2001 increasing further by 2014. Global reserves estimated over certain thresholds in 2014 included Australia, Brazil, China, India, and United States. Only few tonnes of metal produced yearly reduce yttrium fluoride using calcium magnesium alloy sponge. Arc furnace temperatures exceed 1,600 degrees Celsius sufficient to melt the material.
Red component color television cathode ray tubes typically emit from yttria host lattice doped europium cations. Europium emits red color while yttrium collects energy from electron gun passing it to phosphor. Terbium doping produces green luminescence within similar compounds like yttrium aluminium garnet YAG. White LEDs utilize cerium-doped YAG crystals as important components today. Garnets include synthetic varieties used for microwave filters called yttrium iron garnets YIG. These show magnetic interactions more complex than understood over previous four decades. Magnetic properties appear in gadolinium aluminum garnets alongside other combinations. YIG functions efficiently as acoustic energy transmitter and transducer device. Hardness reaches 8.5 making YAG useful simulated diamond gemstone jewelry. Doped single crystals produce near-infrared lasers operating high power drilling cutting metals. Czochralski process normally creates these doped crystals. Small amounts 0.1 to 0.2 percent reduce grain sizes chromium molybdenum titanium zirconium alloys. Strength increases aluminum magnesium alloys improving workability resistance recrystallization oxidation. Deoxidize vanadium non-ferrous metals using small quantities. Stabilizes cubic form zirconia jewelry applications. Nodulizer ductile cast iron forms graphite compact nodules increasing ductility fatigue resistance. Ceramic glass imparts shock resistance low thermal expansion camera lens utility. Professor Mas Subramanian Oregon State University discovered intensely blue pigment combining indium manganese yttrium 2009. This new blue pigment named YInMn first found after two hundred years.
Radioisotope yttrium-90 labels drugs edotreotide ibritumomab tiuxetan treating lymphoma leukemia liver ovarian colorectal pancreatic bone cancers. Monoclonal antibodies adhere to cancer cells killing them via intense beta radiation from Y-90 source. Radioembolization treats hepatocellular carcinoma liver metastasis using millions tiny glass resin beads containing Y-90 microspheres. Delivered directly blood vessels feeding specific tumors segments lobes minimally invasive procedure allowing discharge hours later. Needles made of Y cut precisely severing pain-transmitting nerves spinal cord radionuclide synovectomy inflamed joints knees rheumatoid arthritis. Neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet laser used experimental robot-assisted radical prostatectomy canines reducing collateral nerve tissue damage. Erbium-doped lasers enter cosmetic skin resurfacing treatments currently. Toxicity varies different compounds causing lung liver damage animal experiments. Inhalation yttrium citrate caused pulmonary edema dyspnea rats while chloride induced liver edema pleural effusions hyperemia. Acute exposure causes shortness breath coughing chest pain cyanosis humans. Occupational Safety Health Administration limits workplace exposure 5 milligrams cubic meter over eight-hour workday. National Institute Occupational Safety Health recommended limit equals same value. Levels reaching 10 milligrams cubic meter immediately dangerous life health conditions. Dust highly flammable nature requires careful handling protocols.
Yttrium barium copper oxide superconductor developed University Alabama Huntsville Houston 1987 operates above liquid nitrogen boiling point 77.1 Kelvin. Liquid nitrogen less expensive helium required metallic superconductors lowering operating costs applications. Actual material written formula YBa2Cu3O7 minus d where d must less than 0.7 for superconductivity. Vacancies occur certain places crystal copper oxide planes chains giving peculiar oxidation state copper atoms. Black green multi-crystal multi-phase mineral studied class materials known perovskites alternative combinations elements. Theory low temperature superconductivity well understood since BCS theory 1957 based peculiarity interaction two electrons crystal lattice. Precise mechanism high temperature superconductivity remains mystery despite composition control requirements. Researchers study perovskite class hoping develop practical high-temperature superconductor future. This discovery marked second material exhibiting property first achieving superconductivity above economically important nitrogen boiling point.
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Common questions
When was yttrium first discovered and by whom?
Carl Axel Arrhenius found the heavy black rock in 1787 near the Swedish village of Ytterby. Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide within that sample in 1789 and published his analysis four years later in 1794.
How is yttrium produced from rare-earth minerals today?
Dissolving mixed oxide ores in sulfuric acid allows fractionation by ion exchange chromatography methods to obtain salts reaching 99.999 percent purity levels. The Bayan Obo deposit in China represents the largest mine since Mountain Pass closure in the 1990s.
What are the primary medical uses of radioisotope yttrium-90?
Radioisotope yttrium-90 labels drugs edotreotide ibritumomab tiuxetan treating lymphoma leukemia liver ovarian colorectal pancreatic bone cancers. Radioembolization treats hepatocellular carcinoma liver metastasis using millions tiny glass resin beads containing Y-90 microspheres delivered directly blood vessels feeding specific tumors segments lobes.
Which year did scientists develop the yttrium barium copper oxide superconductor?
Yttrium barium copper oxide superconductor developed University Alabama Huntsville Houston 1987 operates above liquid nitrogen boiling point 77.1 Kelvin. This discovery marked second material exhibiting property first achieving superconductivity above economically important nitrogen boiling point.
How many stable isotopes does natural yttrium have on Earth's crust?
Only one stable isotope Y-89 occurs naturally in Earth's crust despite group 3 elements having odd atomic numbers. Scandium possesses one stable isotope while yttrium itself has only that single natural occurrence.