Woman
The spelling woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann. Bosworth and Toller recorded this form in their Anglo-Saxon Dictionary published between 1898 and 1921. The word evolved through forms like wifman, wīmmann, and wumman before reaching its modern state. In Old English, the term held a gender-neutral meaning similar to the modern word wife or husband. The specific word for female was wīf, while man referred to humans generally. Following the Norman Conquest, the word man began to mean male specifically. By the late 13th century, it had largely replaced the older neutral usage. The consonants w and m coalesced into the modern woman, while f narrowed to mean a married woman only.
A popular misconception links the term woman etymologically to womb. Womb actually derives from the Old English word wamb, cognate to the German colloquial term. The word girl originally meant young person of either sex in English. Middle English usage around 1300 defined it as a child of either sex. Its derivation remains uncertain, possibly stemming from an Old English word that no longer survives. Another theory suggests development from Old English gyrela, meaning dress or apparel. It may also be a diminutive form borrowed from another West Germanic language. Middle Low German used Gör or Göre to mean girl or small child. Only around the beginning of the 16th century did the word come to mean specifically a female child. By the late 14th century, distinctions arose between gay girls and knave girls. In 1546, J. Heywood wrote in Dialogue Prouerbes Eng. Tongue about boys and their wives being called girls. Usage meaning child of either sex survived much longer in Irish English.
Typically, cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes. Male human cells have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome instead. During early fetal development, all embryos possess phenotypically female genitalia until week six or seven. A male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to action of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. Sex differentiation proceeds in female humans independently of gonadal hormones. Humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from the mother's ovum. Genealogical researchers can trace maternal lineage far back in time using this fact.
Female puberty triggers many bodily changes through chemical signals from the pituitary gland. Ovaries secrete hormones that stimulate maturation including increased height and weight. Body hair growth occurs alongside breast development and menarche. Most girls experience menarche between ages twelve and thirteen. Menstruation is a monthly hormonal cycle involving shedding of the uterine lining. Blood and tissue exit through the vagina. Menstrual cycles may be irregular initially but usually become more regular by a woman's twenties. Some women experience symptoms ranging from uncomfortable to disabling during menstruation. Others face strong social stigma prohibiting regular activity.
Pregnancy generally requires fertilization of a woman's egg cells with a man's sperm cells. Humans give birth to single offspring per pregnancy most commonly though twins occur sometimes. Young are undeveloped at time of birth requiring parental aid to fully mature. Between ages forty-nine and fifty-two, a woman reaches menopause when menstrual periods stop permanently. Symptoms include hot flashes, night sweats, and headaches. Lifestyle changes and medications help mitigate these symptoms. The internal female sex organs consist of ovaries producing ova, fallopian tubes transporting eggs, uterus nurturing developing fetus, and vagina used for copulating and birthing.
Women have higher rates of certain diseases like osteoporosis, auto-immune disorders, Alzheimer's, and breast cancer. Lower rates appear in lung cancer, Parkinson's disease, chronic liver disease, hypertension, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. Female-specific conditions include endometriosis, PCOS, and gynecologic cancers such as uterine or cervical cancer. Maternal mortality defined by WHO covers death while pregnant or within 42 days of termination from any cause related to pregnancy management. Between 2000 and 2023, the rate dropped by 40% worldwide. In 2023, around 260,000 women died from complications of pregnancy, delivery, or abortion.
Over 90% of maternal mortality deaths occurred in low-income or lower-middle income countries. Sub-Saharan African and South Asian women accounted for 87% of those deaths. Most were preventable through adequate healthcare access, medication administration, and good sanitation practices during delivery. Life expectancy for women is generally longer than men's advantage beginning at birth. Newborn girls more likely survive first year than boys. Worldwide, women live six to eight years longer than men on average. Discrimination against women has lowered female life expectancy in some parts of Asia so that men there live longer. The difference stems partly from biological advantages and partly from gendered behavioral differences between sexes.
Women less likely engage in unhealthy behaviors like smoking and alcohol use consequently having fewer preventable premature deaths. In some developed countries, life expectancy evening out caused both by worse health behaviors among women especially increased tobacco smoking rates and improved health among men such as reduced cardiovascular disease. World Health Organization notes extra years of life not always lived in good health. Many elderly women contribute care of grandchildren and other family members. Biologists believe extended human lifespan evolutionarily driven by kin selection though other theories exist.
Neithhotep circa 3200 BCE was wife of Narmer and first queen of ancient Egypt. Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton documented this in Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt published by Thames & Hudson. Merneith around 3000 BCE served consort and regent during first dynasty. She may have ruled Egypt independently according to same source. Peseshet circa 2600 BCE worked as physician in Ancient Egypt. Plinio Prioreschi recorded her history in A History of Medicine published Horatius Press. Puabi or Shubad was queen of Ur whose tomb discovered with many expensive artifacts.
Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur included Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu. Kugbau circa 2500 BCE was taverness from Kish chosen by Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer. Later ages deified her as Kubaba. Tashlultum circa 2400 BCE was Akkadian queen wife of Sargon of Akkad mother of Enheduanna. Baranamtarra circa 2384 BCE prominent influential queen of Lugalanda of Lagash. Other known pre-Sargonic queens include Menbara-abzu, Ashume'eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag. Enheduanna circa 2285 BCE high priestess temple Moon God Sumerian city-state Ur possibly first known poet named author either gender. Shibtu circa 1775 BCE king Zimrilim's consort queen Syrian city-state Mari ruled regent husband absence enjoying extensive administrative powers.
UN Declaration Elimination Violence against Women identifies three forms: family community state-perpetrated violence. Percentage women aged 15, 49 thinking husband justified hitting wife under certain circumstances reaches 90% Afghanistan Jordan. Eighty-seven percent Mali, 86% Guinea Timor-Leste, 81% Laos, 80% Central African Republic. Pew Research Center survey 2010 found stoning punishment adultery supported 82% Egypt Pakistan respondents, 70% Jordan, 56% Nigeria, 42% Indonesia. Specific forms include female genital mutilation sex trafficking forced prostitution forced marriage rape sexual harassment honor killings acid throwing dowry related violence.
During early modern period between 15th and 18th centuries witch trials common Europe European colonies North America. Saudi Arabia crime punishable death beheaded woman 2011 witchcraft sorcery. Marital rape made illegal England Wales 1991. Sir Matthew Hale 17th-century jurist published History Pleas Crown 1736 stating husband cannot guilty rape wife because wife given herself kind husband cannot retract. This remained law more than 250 years until abolished Appellate Committee House Lords case R v R 1991. Yemen marriage regulations state wife must obey husband leave home without permission. Iraq husbands legal right punish wives criminal code Paragraph 41 no crime act committed exercising legal right. Democratic Republic Congo Family Code states husband head household wife owes obedience live wherever husband chooses.
Marie Curie first woman awarded Nobel Prize only person winning two different scientific fields. Hypatia born 350-370 CE mathematician astronomer edited Almagest. Ghosa Indian composer hymns Rigveda active around 1500-900 BCE. Duchess Mu Xu first recorded female Chinese poet writing 7th century BCE. Tale Genji earliest novel-like works sometimes called first novel written Japanese Murasaki Shikibu 11th century CE.
Women writers adopted male pen names George Sand George Eliot Currer Bell Ellis Bell Acton Bell Vernon Lee. Modern times Andre Norton James Tiptree Jr adopting male pseudonyms J.K. Rowling Harper Lee purposefully unisex pen names. Clara Schumann one only female composers mentioned Concise Oxford History Music. Eighty-four percent soloists Montreal Symphony Orchestra men 2015 article. Six percent top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra women 2012. Women less common instrumental players popular music genres rock heavy metal notable female instrumentalists all-female bands exist. Underrepresented extreme metal genres according Julian Schaap Pauwke Berkers Grunting Alone Online Gender Inequality Extreme Metal IASPM Journal Vol 4 no 1 2014 page 103.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word woman in English?
The spelling woman evolved from wīfmann recorded by Bosworth and Toller between 1898 and 1921. The term changed through forms like wifman, wīmmann, and wumman before reaching its modern state. In Old English the specific word for female was wīf while man referred to humans generally.
When did the word girl start meaning a female child specifically?
Only around the beginning of the 16th century did the word come to mean specifically a female child. Middle English usage around 1300 defined it as a child of either sex. Usage meaning child of either sex survived much longer in Irish English.
How many women died from pregnancy complications worldwide in 2023?
In 2023 around 260,000 women died from complications of pregnancy delivery or abortion. Between 2000 and 2023 the rate dropped by 40% worldwide. Over 90% of maternal mortality deaths occurred in low-income or lower-middle income countries.
Who was Neithhotep and when did she live?
Neithhotep circa 3200 BCE was wife of Narmer and first queen of ancient Egypt. Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton documented this in Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt published by Thames & Hudson. She served as consort during the early period of Egyptian history.
Which country granted women the right to vote in 2005?
Kuwait granted right to vote in 2005 while Saudi Arabia followed in 2015. In districts of Friesland Netherlands women began voting in 1689. As of 2025 Vatican City allows limited lay capacity voting only.