White
The word white continues Old English, ultimately from a Proto-Germanic root also reflected in Old High German, Old Norse, and Gothic. The root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language, surviving also in Sanskrit meaning to be white or bright. Max Vasmer noted the Slavonic term for light in his 1971 Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Icelandic word for white is directly derived from the Old Norse form of the word. Proto-Germanic also had the word meaning white, bright, blinding, borrowed into Late Latin as albus. This provided the source for Romance words for white including Catalan, Occitan, French, Spanish, Italian, and Galician-Portuguese. Some non-European languages have a wide variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white. Sanskrit has specific words for bright white, the white of teeth, the white of sandalwood, the white of the autumn moon, the white of silver, the white of cow's milk, the white of pearls, the white of a ray of sunlight, and the white of stars. Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic.
The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red and yellow ochre in their vivid cave paintings. Michel Pastoureau documented this usage in his 2005 book Le petit livre des couleurs. In ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, and it was used to wrap mummies. Anne Varichon recorded these practices in her 2000 study Couleurs , pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples. The ancient Greeks saw the world in terms of darkness and light, so white was considered a fundamental color. According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, Apelles and the other famous painters of ancient Greece used only four colors in their paintings: white, red, yellow and black. John Gage noted this limitation in his 1993 work Color and Culture. For painting, the Greeks used the highly toxic pigment lead white, made by a long and laborious process. Kassia St. Clair described this dangerous method in her 2016 book The Secret Lives of Color. A plain white toga, known as a toga virilis, was worn for ceremonial occasions by all Roman citizens over the age of 14, 18. Magistrates and certain priests wore a toga praetexta, with a broad purple stripe. In the time of the Emperor Augustus, no Roman man was allowed to appear in the Roman forum without a toga.
Since 1566, the pope has worn white as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. Pope Pius V, a former monk of the Dominican Order, began this practice when he became head of the Roman Catholic Church. White is an important color for almost all world religions. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims. In Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning. Anne Varichon documented these diverse cultural associations in her 2000 study. During the rituals of Yom Kippur, the ceremony of atonement, the rabbi dresses in white, as do the members of the congregation, to restore the bonds between God and his followers. In traditional China, undyed linen clothing is worn at funerals. As time passes, the bereaved can gradually wear clothing dyed with colors, then with darker colors. Small sacks of quicklime, one for each year of the life of the deceased are placed around the body to protect it against impurity in the next world. White paper flowers are placed around the body. In India, it is the color of purity, divinity, detachment and serenity. In Hindi, the name Sweta means white. In Tibetan Buddhism, white robes were reserved for the lama of a monastery.
In 1666, Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of multiple colors by passing it through a prism to break it up into components then using a second prism to reassemble them. Before Newton, most scientists believed that white was the fundamental color of light. Kassia St. Clair described this scientific revolution in her 2016 book The Secret Lives of Color. Light is perceived by the human visual system as white when the incoming light to the eye stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the eye in roughly equal amounts. Materials that do not emit light themselves appear white if their surfaces reflect back most of the light that strikes them in a diffuse way. On the screen of a color television or computer, white is produced by mixing the primary colors of light: red, green and blue at full intensity, a process called additive mixing. A perfectly white surface diffusely reflects all visible light that strikes it, without absorbing any, irrespective of the light's wavelength or spectral distribution. Harold Richard W. noted this principle in his introduction to appearance analysis. Since it does not absorb any of the incident light, white is the lightest possible color. If the reflection is not diffuse but rather specular, this describes a mirror rather than a white surface.
Lead white was being produced during the 4th century BC; the process is described in Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus. Pieces of lead were put into clay pots which had a separate compartment filled with vinegar. The pots in turn were piled on shelves close to cow dung. The combined fumes of the vinegar and the cow dung caused the lead to corrode into lead carbonate. It was a slow process which could take a month or more. It made an excellent white and was used by artists for centuries, but it was also toxic. Philip Ball documented this dangerous history in his 2001 book Bright Earth, Art and the Invention of Colour. Between 1916 and 1918, chemical companies in Norway and the United States began to produce titanium white, made from titanium oxide. It had first been identified in the 18th century by the German chemist Martin Klaproth, who also discovered uranium. It had twice the covering power of lead white, and was the brightest white pigment known. By 1945, 80 percent of the white pigments sold were titanium white. Titanium white is the most popular white for artists today; it is the brightest available white pigment, and has twice the coverage of lead white. It first became commercially available in 1921. Because of its brilliant whiteness, it is used as a colorant for most toothpaste and sunscreen.
The White movement was the opposition that formed against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War, which followed the Russian Revolution in 1917. It was finally defeated by the Bolsheviks in 1921, 22, and many of its members emigrated to Europe. The association originally came from the white flag of the Bourbon dynasty of France. White became the banner of the royalist rebellions against the French Revolution. During the Civil War which followed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the White Army, a coalition of monarchists, nationalists and liberals, fought unsuccessfully against the Red Army of the Bolsheviks. A similar battle between reds and whites took place during the Civil War in Finland in the same period. The Ku Klux Klan is a racist and anti-immigrant organization which flourished in the Southern United States after the American Civil War. They wore white robes and hoods, burned crosses and violently attacked and murdered black Americans. In Iran, the White Revolution was a series of social and political reforms launched in 1963 by the last Shah of Iran before his downfall. White is also associated with peace and passive resistance. The white ribbon is worn by movements denouncing violence against women and the White Rose was a non-violent resistance group in Nazi Germany. The white flag has long been used to represent either surrender or a request for a truce. It is believed to have originated in the 15th century, during the Hundred Years' War between France and England. The white flag was officially recognized as a request to cease hostilities by the Geneva Convention of 1949.
Common questions
What is the etymological origin of the word white?
The word white continues Old English, ultimately from a Proto-Germanic root also reflected in Old High German, Old Norse, and Gothic. The root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language, surviving also in Sanskrit meaning to be white or bright.
When did Isaac Newton demonstrate that white light was composed of multiple colors?
In 1666, Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of multiple colors by passing it through a prism to break it up into components then using a second prism to reassemble them. Before Newton, most scientists believed that white was the fundamental color of light.
Who began the practice of wearing white as pope since 1566?
Pope Pius V, a former monk of the Dominican Order, began this practice when he became head of the Roman Catholic Church in 1566. Since 1566, the pope has worn white as a symbol of purity and sacrifice.
Which pigment replaced lead white and became commercially available in 1921?
Titanium white first became commercially available in 1921 and had twice the covering power of lead white. By 1945, 80 percent of the white pigments sold were titanium white, making it the brightest white pigment known.
What year did the White movement finally defeat the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War?
The White movement was defeated by the Bolsheviks in 1921 and 1922 after forming against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War which followed the Russian Revolution in 1917. Many members emigrated to Europe following their defeat.