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Tudeh Party of Iran | HearLore
— Ch. 1 · Foundations And Early Growth —
Tudeh Party of Iran.
~8 min read · Ch. 1 of 6
The Tudeh Party of Iran emerged on the 29th of September 1941, born from a meeting at the residence of Soleiman Eskandari. A group known as the "Group of the 53 members" had just been released from prison following the British-Soviet Allied invasion that ended Reza Shah's reign. These former political prisoners formed Hezb-e Tudeh-ye Iran to appeal to broad masses under a new atmosphere of amnesty. Initially, the party presented itself as liberal rather than radical, stressing constitutional rights and democracy against fascism. Soleiman Eskandari urged the organization to bar women from membership and organize Moharram processions to attract non-secular voters. This orientation shifted rapidly within months as the party moved leftward. By early 1945, the group had created the first mass organization in Iranian history with an estimated 2,200 hard-core members. Police records indicated 700 of these members operated in Tehran alone. The organization boasted tens of thousands of sympathizers in youth and women's groups. Its main newspaper, Rahbar, achieved a circulation exceeding 100,000 copies. This figure tripled the circulation of the semi-official Ettela'at daily. British ambassador Reader Bullard described it as the only coherent political force in the country. The New York Times calculated that the party and its allies could secure up to 40% of votes in a fair election. Intellectual life in Iran fell under what historians call near hegemony by the party. Few intellectuals dared oppose the organization even if they did not join. The height of this influence ended when writer Jalal Al-e-Ahmad resigned to form a splinter group called Third Force. He protested the Tudeh's nakedly pro-Soviet policies.
Soviet Alignment And Cold War Context
From the Iran crisis of 1946 onwards, the Tudeh Party became a pro-Soviet organization prepared to carry out Kremlin dictates. This stance persisted even when it meant sacrificing Iranian political independence and sovereignty. Soviet demands for petroleum concessions in northern Iran tarnished the party's appeal over the next two years. The organization supported granting Soviet wishes on grounds of socialist solidarity and internationalism. In February 1949, an attempt was made on the life of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The government blamed the party and banned it immediately. Security forces confiscated assets and dissolved affiliated organizations like the Central Council. They rounded up some 200 leaders and cadres during this crackdown. The party continued functioning underground through groups like the Iran Society for Peace. By December 1950, its military wing managed to arrange escapes for key members jailed since early 1949. Conservative newspapers editorialized that the Tudeh incited ignorant workers to violate private property rights. One such paper declared the uprising proved Tudeh was an enemy of Islam and Iran. During three months in 1946, the Cabinet included three ministers who were Tudeh members. The party filled streets of Tehran and Abadan with tens of thousands of enthusiastic demonstrators for May Day celebrations. The CIA established Operation TPBEDAMN in the late 1940s to counter Soviet activities. This operation received funding of $1 million a year. It prepared disguised gray propaganda or deliberately misrepresented black propaganda materials. Agents translated newspaper articles, cartoons, leaflets, and books into Persian. These materials portrayed the Soviet Union and the Tudeh as anti-Iranian or anti-Islamic. They described harsh realities of life in the Soviet Union. Some agents hired thugs to break up Tudeh rallies and provoked violent acts blamed on communists.
The Mosaddegh Era And 1953 Coup
In April 1951, the Tudeh Party revealed its true strength by launching strikes and riots protesting low wages and poor housing. Demonstrations occurred in Tehran, Isfahan, and northern cities against delays in oil nationalization. Police opened fire on these demonstrators causing panic within Iran's parliament. The party followed a leftist strategy refusing to ally with Mohammad Mosaddegh despite his tolerance. A June 1950 article in their daily Mardom claimed revisions in southern oil contracts would not favor the people. On the 16th of July 1952, Mosaddegh resigned after the Shah refused his nomination for War Minister. Tudeh press continued attacking him describing differences as merely factional struggles between ruling elites. Popular support for Mosaddegh grew in the streets forcing many rank-and-file members to come to his aid. An observer noted that while one-third of demonstrators were Tudeh before March 1952, proportions reversed afterward. Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani sent public letters thanking pro-Tudeh organizations for their contribution during the uprising. Mosaddegh capitalized on this to establish emergency rule allowing socialist reforms. In August 1953, American CIA and British intelligence agents began plotting to overthrow Mosaddegh. They feared rising internal tensions might lead to government breakdown and open ways for Tudeh control. The plotters first attempted to persuade the Shah to dismiss Mosaddegh and replace him with General Fazlollah Zahedi. On the 15th of August, the plot was uncovered by Tudeh supporters within the military. Colonel Mohammad Ali Mobasherri served on the secretariat of the party's military organization. Major Hehdi Homaouni discovered and reported the August plot to the party leadership. An angry crowd attacked symbols of monarchy on the morning of the 17th of August demanding its abolition. Mosaddegh ordered troops into the streets arresting up to 600 mid and low-level activists in Tehran alone. The regime severely damaged the party network reversing course once again. On the 19th of August, a second coup replaced Mosaddegh with Zahedi.
Underground Resistance And Splintering
Mass arrests following the 1953 coup destroyed much of the Tudeh Party structure. Between 1953 and 1957, security forces tracked down 4,121 party members using cryptographic codes likely provided by CIA know-how. This constituted the whole underground and more than half the membership. The party infiltration of the military totaled 477 members including officers ranging from colonels to cadets. None of these officers held positions in crucial tank divisions around Tehran that could have launched a coup. Maziar Behrooz noted that while most officers were in non-combat posts they had access to distribute weapons. The arrest and execution of Khosro Roozbeh in 1957 signaled the end of this process. In the early 1960s, the Sino-Soviet split caused splintering within the organization. Three leaders left to form the Organization of Marxist-Leninists while youth section members formed the Revolutionary Organization of the Tudeh Party. A second division occurred in 1965 between mainstream members and a faction advocating violent struggle against the government. This faction armed tribes in southern Iran causing great damage before unity was restored three years later. In 1966, several members including Ali Khavari and Parviz Hekmatjoo faced death sentences. International outcry and hunger strikes in Europe forced the government to reduce sentences to life imprisonment. These events created sympathy for workers' struggles and helped unify the party after splits. By 1965, the U.S. State Department estimated membership at approximately 1,500 people. The party maintained contact with Afghan Commando Forces personnel during the late 1960s helping distribute magazines among battalions.
Crackdown And Forced Confessions
In February 1983, leaders of the Tudeh Party were arrested and the organization disbanded leaving Iran effectively as a one-party state. More than 10,000 members were imprisoned following this crackdown. Admiral Bahram Afzali, commander of the Iranian navy, was among prominent officers arrested. From May 1983 to May 1984 almost all leadership appeared on television confessing to treason and subversion. An October 1983 roundtable discussion featured joint confessions praising Islam over atheistic Marxism-Leninism. On the 1st of May 1984, Ehsan Tabari appeared stating he had read great Islamic thinkers in prison. He repudiated works written over the past 40 years calling them defective and damaging. Tabari referenced religion and Twelve Imams while praising Islam's spiritual strength. Suspicions that confessions were not free grew due to absence of Taqi Keymanash and 13 other central committee members who died during interrogation. A United Nations representative visited prisons and reported General Secretary Noureddin Kianouri told him he and his wife were tortured into false confessions. Kianouri held up his badly set broken arm as evidence. Maryam Firuz suffered difficulty hearing and swallowing food from beatings received eight years earlier under the Shah's secret police. As a result of these purges many members fled into exile. Hundreds likely perished during 1988 executions of political prisoners when thousands of Mojahedin and leftists were killed. One report lists 90 Tudeh killed within blocks of Evin and Gohar Dasht prisons.
Exile And Modern Political Stance
Despite repression the party has managed to survive though it remains officially banned inside Iran today. Active members continue operating underground risking imprisonment if found affiliated with communist groups. Party leadership is mainly based in exile with a new Central Committee elected in 1992. The organization takes positions against privatization and criticizes electoral systems and anti-labor legislation. In 2017, the party supported Jean-Luc Mélenchon as a leftist force in France. They commemorated the Russian Revolution and pledged solidarity with the Venezuelan Communist Party. Criticism targeted Iranian reformists for betraying ideals while condemning missile attacks on Syria by Donald Trump. This stance made them the only element of opposition to criticize such actions. In 2020, the party condemned U.S. airstrikes killing Qasem Soleimani while criticizing Iranian government intervention in Iraq and Lebanon. During protests spanning 2025 to 2026, they called for continued struggle against what they termed despotism. They cautioned against U.S. interventionism and attempts to restore monarchy citing requests by Reza Pahlavi for foreign aid. The party maintains wide-ranging anthems on their website reflecting decades of ideological commitment.
When was the Tudeh Party of Iran founded and by whom?
The Tudeh Party of Iran emerged on the 29th of September 1941, born from a meeting at the residence of Soleiman Eskandari. A group known as the Group of the 53 members had just been released from prison following the British-Soviet Allied invasion that ended Reza Shah's reign.
How many members did the Tudeh Party have in early 1945 and what was its newspaper circulation?
By early 1945, the group had created the first mass organization in Iranian history with an estimated 2,200 hard-core members. Its main newspaper, Rahbar, achieved a circulation exceeding 100,000 copies which tripled the circulation of the semi-official Ettelaat daily.
Why was the Tudeh Party banned in February 1949 and how many leaders were arrested?
In February 1949, an attempt was made on the life of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the government blamed the party and banned it immediately. Security forces rounded up some 200 leaders and cadres during this crackdown while confiscating assets and dissolving affiliated organizations like the Central Council.
What happened to the Tudeh Party structure after the 1953 coup d'état in Iran?
Mass arrests following the 1953 coup destroyed much of the Tudeh Party structure between 1953 and 1957 when security forces tracked down 4,121 party members using cryptographic codes likely provided by CIA know-how. The arrest and execution of Khosro Roozbeh in 1957 signaled the end of this process.
When did the Iranian government disband the Tudeh Party and what occurred during the 1983 confessions?
In February 1983, leaders of the Tudeh Party were arrested and the organization disbanded leaving Iran effectively as a one-party state with more than 10,000 members imprisoned. From May 1983 to May 1984 almost all leadership appeared on television confessing to treason and subversion under torture as reported by General Secretary Noureddin Kianouri.