The Sun Also Rises
In 1925, Paris hosted as many as 200,000 English-speaking expatriates seeking refuge from the United States. The Paris Tribune reported that year on an American Hospital, an American Library, and an American Chamber of Commerce within the city limits. These Americans felt disenchanted with their homeland due to limited artistic freedom compared to Europe. Ernest Hemingway lived in Paris during this period while Ulysses by James Joyce was banned and burned in New York. Gertrude Stein coined the phrase Lost Generation after a garage owner told her about those who went to war. She described them as C'est une génération perdue. Hemingway may have used this term as an early title for his novel before settling on The Sun Also Rises. He believed the characters were battered but not lost despite the devastation of World War I. The author wanted to show resilience rather than decay among these post-war expatriates. Critics like Michael S. Reynolds argue the book reflects a decline in American values rather than just decadence. Jake Barnes serves as a moral center because he works for a living unlike others who live off inherited money.
Hemingway first visited Pamplona in 1923 with his wife Hadley Richardson following his passion for bullfighting. The couple returned to Spain in 1924 accompanied by Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos, and Donald Ogden Stewart. In June 1925 they traveled again bringing Bill Smith, Pat Guthrie, Duff Lady Twysden, and Harold Loeb. The group stayed at Juanito Quintana's hotel during the Festival of San Fermín. Hemingway became jealous when Harold Loeb had recently been on a romantic getaway with Duff. By the end of that week the two men engaged in a public fistfight. A young matador named Cayetano Ordóñez honored Hemingway's wife by presenting her with an ear from a killed bull. Outside Pamplona their fishing trip to the Irati River suffered from polluted water. On July 21, Hemingway began writing what would become The Sun Also Rises. He finished the draft on the 21st of September 1925 after changing the working title Fiesta to The Lost Generation. Pauline Pfeiffer joined him in Schruns Austria in January 1926 and urged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. Hemingway later had an affair with Pauline while still married to Hadley. Richardson asked for a separation and left for southern France in June 1926.
Hemingway learned to write in a modernist style from Ezra Pound who acted as midwife for new literary talent. He used understatement and pared away sentimentalism to present images without explanations of meaning. F. Scott Fitzgerald advised him to let the book's action play itself out among its characters. When Fitzgerald suggested trimming at least 2500 words from the opening sequence which was 30 pages long, Hemingway wired publishers to cut those pages entirely. This created a novel without a focused starting point that critics viewed as a modern perspective. Frederic Svoboda notes how quickly the work moves away from simple recounting of events. Jackson Benson believes Hemingway drew out experiences with what if scenarios about being wounded or sent back to front lines. The author called his approach the iceberg theory or theory of omission where one thing occurs below the surface. Balassi says he applied this theory better here than in any other work by editing extraneous material. In the earliest draft the novel began in Pamplona but Hemingway moved the setting to Paris because Montparnasse life served as counterpoint. He added metaphors for each character including Mike's money problems and Brett's association with Circe myth. Robert Cohn received an association with the segregated steer during revision. The final version stripped dialogue and minimized descriptions creating a complex yet tightly compressed story.
In the bar scene in Paris Jake Barnes becomes angry at some homosexual men who represent inauthentic ways of life. Critic Ira Elliot suggests Hemingway aligned Jake with these men since neither had sex with women. His anger shows self-hatred regarding his lack of masculinity after losing his war wound potency. Elliot wonders if the wound signifies latent homosexuality though emphasis remains on interest in women. Bill confesses fondness for Jake then states I could not tell you that in New York it would mean I was a faggot. Brett Ashley represents the liberated New Woman with bobbed hair and numerous love affairs. She is described as a damned fine-looking woman despite being compared to a boy. Romero rejects her ambiguity while wanting a feminine partner who will grow her hair. Critics examine gender misidentification prevalent throughout much of Hemingway's work showing effeminate men and boyish women. Brett seduces young matador Romero becoming a Circe figure during the festival. The Davidsons speculate Jake might undermine Romero's ideal stature by bringing Brett to him. Fiedler calls Brett one of outstanding examples of Hemingway bitch women while others see her as complicated and enigmatic. Donald Daiker writes Hemingway treats her with delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy.
Hemingway has been called antisemitic most notably because of characterization of Robert Cohn in the book. Other characters often refer to Cohn as Jew and once use kike epithet. Barry Gross comments that Hemingway never lets reader forget Cohn is unattractive because he is Jewish rather than just happens to be one. Shunned by group members Cohn remains different unable or unwilling to understand fiesta participation. Josephine Knopf speculates author wanted to depict Cohn as shlemiel fool but character lacks traditional traits. Harold Loeb served as basis for Cohn having rivaled Hemingway for affections of Duff Lady Twysden. In 1925 Loeb should have declined invitation to join them in Pamplona before trip he was Duff lover and Hemingway friend. During fiasco of fiesta he lost both Duff and friendship. Publishers complained about description of bulls yet allowed use of Jewish epithets showing acceptance level after World War I. Reynolds explains Hemingway makes Cohn unlikeable not only as character but specifically as Jewish person. Critics from 1970s and 1980s considered him misogynistic and homophobic while 1990s brought critical reconsideration by female scholars.
Hemingway maneuvered publisher Boni & Liveright into terminating contract so The Sun Also Rises could appear with Scribner's instead. He quickly wrote The Torrents of Spring satirical novella parodying Sherwood Anderson Dark Laughter in December 1925. His three-book contract included termination clause if they rejected single submission which happened immediately. Within weeks he signed agreement with Scribner's who agreed to publish all subsequent work including novella. Scribner's published novel on the 22nd of October 1926 first edition consisting of 5,090 copies selling at $2.00 per copy. Cleo Damianakes illustrated dust jacket with Hellenistic design featuring seated robed woman holding apple exposing shoulders and thigh. Editor Maxwell Perkins intended Cleon's respectably sexy design to attract feminine readers controlling destinies of many novels. Two months later book appeared second printing with 7,000 copies sold. By 1928 after Men Without Women short story collection release novel reached eighth printing. Jonathan Cape published version in United Kingdom titled Fiesta without two epigraphs in 1927. In 1947 Scribner's released boxed set including A Farewell To Arms and For Whom The Bell Tolls alongside this title.
During 1970s The Sun Also Rises appealed to lost generation of Vietnam era according to Susan Beegel. Aldridge writes novel kept appeal because characters live most beautiful city spending days traveling fishing drinking making love reveling youth. Expatriate writers from 1920s found success capturing time and place here more than others. Bloom says some characters have not stood test time writing modern readers uncomfortable with antisemitic treatment of Cohn character. Brett and Mike belong uniquely to Jazz Age failing translate to modern era yet formal qualities keep work canonized. Novel made Hemingway famous inspiring young women across America wear short hair sweater sets like heroine acting similarly too. It changed writing style seen any American magazine published next twenty years becoming model for twentieth-century American writing. Two Broadway producers wanted adapt story stage in 1927 but made no immediate offers. Hemingway considered marketing directly telling editor Max Perkins he would not sell less than $30,000 money wanting estranged wife Hadley Richardson receive. He sold film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932. In 1956 novel adapted film same name Peter Viertel wrote screenplay Tyrone Power played lead opposite Ava Gardner Errol Flynn as Mike. Royalties went to Richardson helping her financially after divorce.
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Common questions
When was The Sun Also Rises published?
Scribner's published the novel on the 22nd of October 1926. The first edition consisted of 5,090 copies selling at $2.00 per copy.
Who coined the phrase Lost Generation used in The Sun Also Rises?
Gertrude Stein coined the phrase Lost Generation after a garage owner told her about those who went to war. She described them as C'est une génération perdue and Ernest Hemingway may have used this term as an early title for his novel before settling on The Sun Also Rises.
Where did Ernest Hemingway write The Sun Also Rises?
Hemingway began writing what would become The Sun Also Rises on July 21 while staying at Juanito Quintana's hotel during the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona. He finished the draft on the 21st of September 1925 after changing the working title Fiesta to The Lost Generation.
What is the iceberg theory applied in The Sun Also Rises?
The author called his approach the iceberg theory or theory of omission where one thing occurs below the surface. Balassi says he applied this theory better here than in any other work by editing extraneous material.
Why was Robert Cohn considered antisemitic in The Sun Also Rises?
Other characters often refer to Cohn as Jew and once use kike epithet. Barry Gross comments that Hemingway never lets reader forget Cohn is unattractive because he is Jewish rather than just happens to be one.