Synagogue
The first stone dedication inscription for a synagogue dates to the second half of the third century BCE. This artifact emerged in Lower Egypt, marking the earliest physical evidence of these structures. Archaeologists trace the emergence of synagogues to the Jewish diaspora following the Babylonian Exile of Judaea in 586 BCE. These early spaces appeared centuries before they were introduced into the Land of Israel itself. The Hellenistic period saw the construction of proseukhái in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. Philo and Josephus later described lavishly adorned synagogues in both Alexandria and Antioch. More than a dozen Second Temple period synagogues have been identified by archaeologists across Israel and other countries of the Hellenistic world. Mordechai Aviam reported in 2018 that at least nine such synagogues pre-date the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE. Excavations revealed sites at Magdala, Gamla, Masada, Herodium, Modi'in, Qiryat Sepher, and Khan Diab. A synagogue discovered near the city gate at Gamla was destroyed by the Roman army in 67 CE and never rebuilt. Another unique find occurred on the western side of Masada, just south of the palace complex. There, researchers uncovered a group of 14 scrolls including biblical, sectarian, and apocryphal documents. The synagogue of Dura Europos in Syria dates from the third century CE and features painted figural scenes from the Tanakh. Walls depicted Abraham and Isaac, Moses and Aaron, Solomon, Samuel and Jacob, Elijah and Ezekiel. This chamber is now reconstructed in the National Museum in Damascus.
Historically, synagogues were built in the prevailing architectural style of their time and place. The synagogue in Kaifeng, China, looked very much like Chinese temples of that region and era. Surviving medieval synagogues in Budapest and Prague are typical Gothic structures. Mudéjar plasterwork embellishes the surviving medieval synagogues in Spain. The emancipation of Jews in Western European countries during the 19th century enabled them to build magnificent synagogues without needing special permissions. Large Jewish communities constructed these buildings across Western Europe and the United States in all historicist or revival styles then in fashion. Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival, Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival styles appeared. Egyptian Revival synagogues exist, along with one Mayan Revival synagogue. Most historicist synagogues did not attempt a pure style but are best described as eclectic. In the post-war era, synagogue architecture abandoned historicist styles for modernism. The Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest seats 3,000 people and has an area of 7,600 square meters. It stands 48.6 meters high apart from its towers. The Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam was built in 1675 and seated 1,227 men and 440 women at that time. It remains the largest synagogue in the world by some measures, covering 1,500 square meters and standing 20 meters high. The Great Beth Midrash Gur in Jerusalem seats up to 20,000 worshippers and covers approximately 1,500 square meters. Construction on this edifice took more than 25 years.
All synagogues contain a bimah, a large raised reader's platform where the Torah scroll is placed to be read. In Sephardi synagogues and traditional Ashkenazi synagogues, it serves as the prayer leader's reading desk. The term derives from the Ancient Greek word bema meaning raised platform. Among Sephardic Jews, it is known as a tēbāh or migdal-etz. In Orthodox Judaism, the bimah sits in the center of the synagogue, separate from the Torah ark. Other branches join the bimah and the ark together. The ark holds the Torah scrolls and is almost always positioned so those who face it look toward Jerusalem. Sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem and in Jerusalem towards the Temple Mount. Occasionally, synagogues face other directions for structural reasons. An ornate curtain called the parochet hangs outside or inside the ark doors. A continually lit lamp or lantern called the ner tamid honors the Divine Presence. Originally, Jewish congregants sat upon mats and cushions strewn across the floor rather than chairs. Maimonides wrote that in Spain and the Maghreb, lamps were kindled and mats spread on which worshipers sit. Today, the custom has spread globally to sit upon chairs and benches. In an Ashkenazi synagogue, all seats most often face the Torah Ark. In a Sephardic synagogue, seats are usually arranged around the perimeter of the sanctuary. Many current synagogues have an elaborate chair named for the prophet Elijah used only during brit milah ceremonies.
The Samaritan house of worship uses the same Greek word proseukhē as Jewish synagogues during the Hellenistic period. The oldest Samaritan synagogue discovered dates from between 250 and 175 BCE on Delos in the Aegean Islands. Most Samaritan synagogues excavated in Samaria were built in the fourth to seventh centuries at the end of the Roman Empire. The façade of a Samaritan synagogue typically faces Mount Gerizim, the holiest site to Samaritans. Jewish synagogues orient toward Jerusalem and the Temple Mount instead. Samaritans do not use depictions of man or beast due to strict adherence to commandments against graven images. Representations of zodiac signs, human figures, or Greek deities like Helios would be unimaginable in their buildings. A representation of Mount Gerizim serves as a clear indication of Samaritan identity. Religious implements found in Samaritan synagogues relate to the Tabernacle, the Ark of the Covenant within it, or the Torah shrine itself. Missing from Samaritan synagogue floors are images often found in Jewish ones such as the lulav palm-branch and etrog citron fruit. Mikvehs near the synagogue after 70 CE continued to exist for Samaritans while Jews abandoned the habit. Ancient Samaritan synagogues have been found in the Diaspora, the wider Holy Land, and specifically in Samaria. The Synagogue of Salbit was about 15 meters in size and two stories tall, oriented towards Mount Gerizim.
The German, Jewish Reform movement arose in the early 19th century and made many changes to traditional synagogue appearance. The first Reform synagogue opened in Hamburg in 1811 and introduced features making it look more like a church. These included an organ to accompany prayers even on Shabbat when musical instruments are proscribed by halakha. A choir accompanied the hazzan and vestments were worn by the rabbi. In following decades, the central reader's table moved to the front of the Reform sanctuary. Gender separation was removed entirely from these spaces. Orthodox synagogues maintain a partition called mehitza dividing men's and women's seating areas. Some feature a separate women's section located on a balcony. Reform Judaism allows mixed seating arrangements that differ significantly from Orthodox customs. Musical instruments play a role in Reform services but remain prohibited in Orthodox settings during Sabbath observance. The Satmar synagogue in Kiryas Joel, New York, seats several thousand congregants. Temple Emanu-El of New York is the largest Reform synagogue in the world with an area of 2,300 square meters. It seats 2,500 people within its main sanctuary. Congregation Yetev Lev D'Satmar in Brooklyn also seats between 2,000 and 4,000 worshippers.
The earliest evidence for a synagogue is a stone-carved dedication inscription found in Lower Egypt dating from the second half of the third century BCE. The Old Synagogue in Erfurt, Germany, dates to circa 1100 and stands as the oldest intact synagogue building in Europe. Parts of it are now used as a museum of local Jewish history. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, Kerala, India was built in 1568 by the Paradesi community. It remains the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations. Jew's Court in Steep Hill, Lincoln, England is arguably the oldest synagogue in Europe currently in use. The Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island was built in 1759 for the Jeshuat Israel congregation established in 1658. It is the oldest Jewish house of worship in North America still standing. Congregation Shearith Israel in New York City founded in 1654 holds the title of oldest congregation in the United States. Its present building dates from 1897. The Worms Synagogue in Germany was built in 1175 and razed on Kristallnacht in 1938 before being painstakingly reconstructed using original stones. The Nidhe Israel Synagogue of Barbados was first built in 1654 and destroyed in an 1831 hurricane before reconstruction in 1833. The Curaçao synagogue or Snoa in Willemstad was built by Sephardic Portuguese Jews from Amsterdam and Recife in 1692.
Common questions
When was the first stone dedication inscription for a synagogue found in Lower Egypt?
The earliest physical evidence of synagogues is a stone-carved dedication inscription from the second half of the third century BCE. This artifact emerged in Lower Egypt and marks the beginning of known synagogue history.
Which ancient city contains the oldest intact synagogue building in Europe?
The Old Synagogue in Erfurt, Germany dates to circa 1100 and stands as the oldest intact synagogue building in Europe. Parts of this structure are now used as a museum of local Jewish history.
How do Samaritan synagogues differ from Jewish synagogues regarding orientation and imagery?
Samaritan synagogues typically face Mount Gerizim while Jewish synagogues orient toward Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Samaritans strictly avoid depictions of man or beast due to commandments against graven images.
What architectural styles characterize historicist synagogues built during the 19th century emancipation period?
Large Jewish communities constructed magnificent synagogues across Western Europe and the United States using Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival, Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival styles. Most historicist synagogues did not attempt a pure style but are best described as eclectic.
When was the Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi Kerala India originally built by the Paradesi community?
The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, Kerala, India was built in 1568 by the Paradesi community. It remains the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations.