Sword
The first weapons that can be described as swords date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, and are made from arsenical bronze. These early blades measure about 60 centimeters long. Some of them are inlaid with silver. The sword developed from the knife or dagger during the Bronze Age. Copper and bronze weapons were produced with long leaf-shaped blades. Hilts consisted of an extension of the blade in handle form. A knife has only one cutting surface, while a dagger has two cutting surfaces. Construction of longer blades became possible during the 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East. First came arsenic copper, then tin-bronze. Blades longer than 50 centimeters were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age. The Young's modulus of bronze is relatively low. Consequently, longer blades would bend easily. The development of the sword out of the dagger was gradual. The first weapons classified as swords without ambiguity are those found in Minoan Crete. These specimens date to about 1700 BC. They reach a total length of more than 58 centimeters. One of the most important types of European Bronze Age swords was the Naue II type. This type first appears in the 13th century BC in Northern Italy. It survives well into the Iron Age with a life-span of about seven centuries. During its lifetime, metallurgy changed from bronze to iron, but not its basic design. Naue II swords could be as long as 90 centimeters, but most specimens fall into the 60 to 70 centimeter range.
Iron became increasingly common from the 13th century BC. Before that, the use of swords was less frequent. The iron was not quench-hardened although often containing sufficient carbon. It was work-hardened like bronze by hammering. This made them comparable or only slightly better in terms of strength and hardness to bronze swords. They could still bend during use rather than spring back into shape. But the easier production permitted the equipping of entire armies with metal weapons. High-carbon steel for swords developed in India around the mid-1st millennium BC. This material would later appear as Damascus steel. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions swords of Indian iron and steel being exported from ancient India to ancient Greece. Wootz steel was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to special smelting and reworking processes. These created networks of iron carbides described as globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite. The use of Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. Around the 10th century, properly quenched hardened and tempered steel started to become much more common. The Frankish Ulfberht blades were of particularly consistent high quality. Charles the Bald tried to prohibit the export of these swords. They were used by Vikings in raids against the Franks. By the time of Classical Antiquity, iron swords were common. Greek xiphos and Roman gladius are typical examples measuring some 60 centimeters. The late Roman Empire introduced the longer spatha. From this time, the term longsword is applied to swords comparatively long for their respective periods.
During the Middle Ages, sword technology improved significantly. The spatha type remained popular throughout the Migration period and well into the Middle Ages. Viking Age saw again a more standardized production. The basic design remained indebted to the spatha. It was only from the 11th century that Norman swords began to develop the crossguard. During the Crusades of the 12th to 13th century, this cruciform type of arming sword remained essentially stable. These swords were designed as cutting weapons, although effective points became common to counter improvements in armor. The 14th-century change from mail to plate armor drove further innovation. In the 14th century, with growing use of more advanced armor, the hand and a half sword came into being. Also known as a bastard sword, it had an extended grip allowing one or two hands usage. Though these swords did not provide a full two-hand grip, they allowed wielders to hold a shield or parrying dagger in their off hand. By 1400, the langes Schwert or spadone was common. A number of 15th- and 16th-century Fechtbücher offering instructions on their use survive. From around 1300 to 1500, innovative sword designs evolved rapidly. The main transition was lengthening the grip for two-handed use and extending the blade. Another variant was the specialized armour-piercing estoc type. The longsword became popular due to its extreme reach and cutting and thrusting abilities. In the 16th century, the large zweihänder was used by elite German and Swiss mercenaries known as doppelsöldners. Zweihänder literally translates to two-hander. It possesses a long blade and huge guard for protection. Some zweihänder swords were over 180 centimeters long. One ascribed to Frisian warrior Pier Gerlofs Donia measured 207 centimeters.
Non-European weapons classified as swords include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Eastern scimitar. The Chinese dao and related Japanese katana also fall into this category. The Chinese jiàn is an example of a non-European double-edged sword. European models derived from the double-edged Iron Age sword share similarities with it. In Indonesia, images of Indian style swords appear in Hindu gods statues from ancient Java circa 8th to 10th century. Native types like kris, parang, klewang, and golok were more popular as weapons. These daggers are shorter than a sword but longer than a common dagger. In the Philippines, traditional large swords known as kampilans and panabas were used in combat by natives. A notable wielder of the kampilan was Lapu-Lapu, king of Mactan. His warriors defeated Spaniards and killed Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan at the Battle of Mactan on the 27th of April 1521. Traditional swords in the Philippines were immediately banned after that event. Training in swordsmanship was later hidden from occupying Spaniards by practices in dances. Filipinos were forced to use swords disguised as farm tools. Bolos and baliswords were used during revolutions against colonialists. In China, troops used the long anti-cavalry miao dao well into the Second Sino-Japanese War. Japan was famous for swords forged in the early 13th century for the Samurai class. Western historians have said Japanese katana were among the finest cutting weapons in world military history. Types used by Samurai included the ödachi, tachi, katana, and wakizashi. Swordmaking reached its height in the 15th and 16th centuries. From the 15th to 16th century, more than 200,000 swords were exported. They reached a quantitative peak but were simple swords made exclusively for mass production.
Towards the end of its useful life, the sword served more as a weapon of self-defence than for battlefield use. Military importance steadily decreased during the Modern Age. Even as a personal sidearm, the sword began to lose preeminence in the early 19th century. This reflected development of reliable handguns. Swords were still normally carried in combat by cavalrymen and officers throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. During the Aceh War, Acehnese klewangs proved very effective in close quarters combat with Dutch troops. The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army adopted a heavy cutlass called Klewang to counter it. Mobile troops armed with carbines and klewangs succeeded in suppressing Aceh resistance where traditional infantry failed. From that time until the 1950s, Dutch forces used these cutlasses. Swords continued in general peacetime use by cavalry prior to World War I. British Army formally adopted a completely new design of cavalry sword in 1908. At outbreak of World War I, infantry officers in all combatant armies still carried swords. On mobilization in August 1914, all serving British Army officers required sharpened swords. High visibility and limited practical use led to abandonment within weeks. Most cavalry continued to carry sabres throughout the war. It was not until late 1920s and early 1930s that this historic weapon was finally discarded for ceremonial purposes only. In China, troops used long anti-cavalry miao dao well into Second Sino-Japanese War. Last units of British heavy cavalry switched to armoured vehicles as late as 1938. Swords were used occasionally during World War II but typically as secondary weapons outclassed by firearms.
The sword consists of blade and hilt. The term scabbard applies to cover for blade when not in use. Early iron blades have rounded points due to limited metallurgy. These were effective for thrusting against lightly armored opponents. As armor advanced, blades became narrower, stiffer, and sharply pointed to defeat it. Dedicated cutting blades are wide and thin. They often have grooves known as fullers which lighten the blade at cost of some stiffness. Edges of a cutting sword are almost parallel. Blades oriented for thrust have thicker blades with distinct midrib for increased stiffness. Part of blade between center of percussion and point is called foible. That between center of balance and hilt is forte. Section in between CoP and CoB is middle. Ricasso or shoulder identifies short section below guard left completely unsharpened. Many swords have no ricasso. On large weapons like German Zweihänder, metal cover surrounded ricasso. Swordsman might grip it in one hand to wield weapon more easily in close-quarter combat. Tang is extension of blade to which hilt is fitted. On Japanese blades, maker's mark appears on tang under grip. Hilt is collective term for parts allowing handling and control of blade. These consist of grip, pommel, and simple or elaborate guard. Pommel originally designed as stop to prevent slipping from hand. From 11th century onward it became counterbalance to blade. It can also be used as blunt instrument at close range. In late medieval and Renaissance era European swords, leather flap called chappe attached to crossguard base. This protected mouth of scabbard and prevented water entry.
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Common questions
When were the first weapons classified as swords created?
The first weapons that can be described as swords date to around 3300 BC. These early blades have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, and are made from arsenical bronze.
What is the origin of the Naue II sword type?
The Naue II type first appears in the 13th century BC in Northern Italy. This sword survives well into the Iron Age with a life-span of about seven centuries while metallurgy changed from bronze to iron.
How did Wootz steel develop on the Indian subcontinent?
Wootz steel was developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC through special smelting and reworking processes. These methods created networks of iron carbides described as globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite.
Who defeated Ferdinand Magellan using traditional Philippine swords?
Lapu-Lapu, king of Mactan, led warriors who killed Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan at the Battle of Mactan on the 27th of April 1521. Traditional swords in the Philippines were immediately banned after that event.
When did British Army officers stop carrying swords for combat use?
British forces abandoned swords for practical combat within weeks of mobilization in August 1914 due to high visibility and limited utility. It was not until late 1920s and early 1930s that this historic weapon was finally discarded for ceremonial purposes only.