Free to follow every thread. No paywall, no dead ends.
Stone Age: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Stone Age
The oldest indirect evidence of stone tool use dates to 3.4 million years ago, found as fossilized animal bones with tool marks in the Lower Awash Valley of Ethiopia. This discovery pushes the timeline of human technological history back to a time when the genus Homo had not yet fully emerged, suggesting that earlier hominins like Australopithecus or Paranthropus may have been the first toolmakers. The oldest direct evidence of stone tools comes from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, Kenya, where artifacts dated to 3.3 million years ago were excavated. These Lomekwian tools predate the previously known Oldowan tools found at Gona, Ethiopia, which were dated to 2.6 to 2.55 million years ago. The species responsible for the Lomekwi tools remains unknown, but the existence of these artifacts challenges the long-held belief that tool use evolved only during the Pleistocene epoch. The transition from simple pebble tools to more complex implements marks the beginning of a 3.4 million-year journey that would eventually lead to the development of modern civilization.
The Tool-Making Savanna
Starting around 4 million years ago, a single biome known as transcontinental savannahstan stretched from South Africa through the East African Rift System, across North Africa, and into the vast grasslands of Asia. This environment provided the ecological niche for Homo erectus, the predecessor of modern humans, to develop a dependence on tool use. The species Homo erectus became a tool-equipped savanna dweller, carrying Mode 1 tools across Eurasia long before the development of Mode 2 technology and the controlled use of fire. The earliest unambiguous evidence of Homo erectus is a whole cranium, KNM-ER 3733, found at Koobi Fora in Kenya and dated to 1.78 million years ago. The appearance of Homo erectus coincided with increasing aridity in the region, which contracted parkland savanna in favor of open grassland. This environmental shift required hunters to travel longer distances comfortably, a capability that Homo erectus possessed. The dispersal of Homo erectus across much of Africa and Asia occurred substantially before the development of Mode 2 technology, indicating that the species carried Mode 1 tools over vast distances.
The Acheulean Revolution
The end of the Oldowan period in Africa was marked by the appearance of Acheulean, or Mode 2, stone tools, with the earliest known instances dating to 1.7 to 1.6 million years ago at Kokiselei, West Turkana, Kenya. A Mode 2 tool is a biface consisting of two concave surfaces intersecting to form a cutting edge all the way around, except in the case of tools intended to feature a point. More work and planning go into the manufacture of a Mode 2 tool compared to Mode 1. The manufacturer hits a slab off a larger rock to use as a blank, then strikes large flakes off the blank and works them into bifaces by hard-hammer percussion on an anvil stone. The edge is retouched with small flakes hit off with a bone or wood soft hammer to sharpen or resharpen it. The Acheulean tradition is often found in association with Homo erectus, and the most advanced tools are typically given credit to the most advanced hominin. The largest cutting tools, known as Large Cutting Tools or LCTs, became a standard part of the Acheulean repertoire, with a primary technological distinction being the preference for large flakes greater than 10 centimeters as blanks for making large cutting tools.
Common questions
When did the Stone Age begin and where was the oldest evidence found?
The oldest indirect evidence of stone tool use dates to 3.4 million years ago and was found as fossilized animal bones with tool marks in the Lower Awash Valley of Ethiopia. This discovery suggests that earlier hominins like Australopithecus or Paranthropus may have been the first toolmakers before the genus Homo fully emerged.
What is the difference between Mode 1 and Mode 2 stone tools in the Stone Age?
Mode 1 tools are simple pebble tools while Mode 2 tools are biface consisting of two concave surfaces intersecting to form a cutting edge all the way around. The Acheulean tradition of Mode 2 tools required more work and planning to manufacture compared to Mode 1 tools and became standard with Large Cutting Tools greater than 10 centimeters.
When did the Stone Age end and what marked the transition to the Bronze Age?
Innovation in the technique of smelting ore is regarded as the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age. The first evidence of human metallurgy dates to between the 6th and 5th millennia BC in the archaeological sites of the Vinča culture in modern-day Serbia.
Where are the most important Paleolithic cave paintings located and when were they created?
The Cave of Chauvet in the Ardèche department of France contains the most important cave paintings of the Paleolithic era dating from about 36,000 BC. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done between 14,000 and 12,000 BC and the hall of bulls in Lascaux dates from about 15,000 to 10,000 BC.
When did the Neolithic period start and what were the first large-scale constructions?
The first Neolithic cultures started around 7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and spread concentrically to other areas of the world. The first large-scale constructions included settlement towers and walls like Jericho and ceremonial sites such as Stonehenge and the Ggantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago erected around 2500 BC.
The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, was characterized by the adoption of agriculture, marking one of the most revolutionary changes in human history. The shift from food gathering to food producing was accompanied by the development of pottery, polished stone tools, and the construction of more complex, larger settlements such as Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük. The first Neolithic cultures started around 7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and spread concentrically to other areas of the world. Skara Brae, located in Orkney, Scotland, is one of Europe's best examples of a Neolithic village, containing stone beds, shelves, and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream. The first large-scale constructions were built, including settlement towers and walls like Jericho and ceremonial sites such as Stonehenge. The Ggantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest surviving free-standing structures in the world, erected around 2500 BC. The earliest evidence for established trade exists in the Neolithic, with newly settled people importing exotic goods over distances of many hundreds of miles. These facts show that there were sufficient resources and cooperation to enable large groups to work on these projects.
The End of the Stone
Innovation in the technique of smelting ore is regarded as the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age. The first highly significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin or arsenic, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age or Chalcolithic. The first evidence of human metallurgy dates to between the 6th and 5th millennia BC in the archaeological sites of the Vinča culture, including Majdanpek, Jarmovac, Pločnik, and Rudna Glava in modern-day Serbia. Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BC, carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In some regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and Southeast Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BC, while Europe and the rest of Asia became post-Stone Age societies by about 4000 BC. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BC, when gold, copper, and silver made their entrance. Stone tool manufacture continued even after the Stone Age ended in a given area, with millstones in use in Europe and North America until well into the 20th century.
The Art of Survival
Prehistoric art is visible in the artifacts, with petroglyphs and rock paintings serving as dominant forms of pre-writing symbols. The Cave of Chauvet in the Ardèche department, France, contains the most important cave paintings of the Paleolithic era, dating from about 36,000 BC. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done between 14,000 and 12,000 BC and show, among others, bisons. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, dates from about 15,000 to 10,000 BC. The meaning of many of these paintings remains unknown, but they may have been used for seasonal rituals. Some scenes of the Mesolithic can be typed and are fairly clear, such as the battle scene between organized bands of archers at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón in Spain, dated to about 7000 to 4000 BC. This painting depicts about 50 bowmen in two groups marching or running in step toward each other, each man carrying a bow in one hand and a fistful of arrows in the other. The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Egypt known as Cemetery 117. These artistic expressions suggest that activities of Stone Age humans went beyond the immediate requirements of procuring food, body coverings, and shelters, indicating specific rites relating to death and burial were practiced.