Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)
In the spring of 69 CE, Jerusalem stood as a sprawling metropolis covering approximately 450 acres. The city housed tens of thousands of residents and served as the spiritual center for Jews across the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder described it as the most famous city in the East while Tacitus called it the capital of the Jews. Three defensive walls protected the urban area. The First Wall enclosed both the lower and upper cities during the second century BCE. The Second Wall extended further north to protect new neighborhoods. King Herod Agrippa initiated construction of the Third Wall in the early 40s CE to enclose the northern suburb of Bezetha. Emperor Claudius halted work on this final barrier due to fears of rebellion or because Agrippa died. Construction resumed in haste when the revolt began.
The city relied heavily on imported food from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee since local agriculture could not sustain its population. Water came from large pools collecting rainwater runoff and channels directing flow from the Gihon Spring. An aqueduct system brought additional water from Bethlehem and areas further south. When refugees and insurgents poured into the city during the war, vulnerability to famine increased dramatically. Internal fighting between rival Jewish factions destroyed food stores crucial for survival. John of Gischala, Simon bar Giora, and Eleazar ben Simon each controlled different sectors of the city. They burned provisions to weaken their enemies before the Romans arrived.
Titus returned to Judaea in winter 69/70 CE with an army of nearly 50,000 soldiers. His forces included Legio V Macedonica, Legio X Fretensis, and Legio XV Apollinaris alongside auxiliary units. Tiberius Julius Alexander served as his second-in-command. This combined force was significantly larger than any previously deployed against Britain. Roman legions established camps at strategic locations around Jerusalem. Legion XII, XV, and V set up positions on Mount Scopus northeast of the city. Legion X established a camp on the Mount of Olives. During construction some unarmed soldiers were attacked by rebel forces charging across the Kidron Valley.
Titus conducted reconnaissance missions with 600 cavalrymen to assess northern defenses. He narrowly escaped ambush after being cut off from his main group. The Roman army advanced through Samaria resting briefly in Gophna. Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis led Legio V southward via Emmaus while A. Larcius Lepidus Sulpicianus approached from Jericho. Titus positioned his forces in the Valley of Thorns three miles from Jerusalem. He focused assaults on the north and northeast where natural ravines offered no protection. Tacitus recorded that 600,000 people were besieged within the walls though modern historians consider this figure exaggerated.
On 14 Nisan during Passover festival the Romans used the temporary halt in attacks to move closer to the walls. John's forces exploited temple inner gates to seize control of courtyards from Zealots. Internal fighting resumed as Simon fought both John and Roman siegeworks simultaneously. After fifteen days failed attempts to burn siege engines a battering ram breached the third wall forcing defenders to retreat. Within five days Romans broke through the middle section of the second wall but narrow breaches trapped their troops in alleys.
Famine devastated the population inside the city. Grain prices soared as people scavenged scraps in sewers. Josephus described children with swollen bellies and deserters suffering from dropsy. Lamentations Rabbah recounts how a woman named Maria from Perea roasted her infant son after rebels plundered her home. When rebels arrived drawn by food smells she offered them leftovers leaving them shocked. Many died from starvation while others suffered related diseases. Over 500 executions occurred daily at times depleting available crosses for crucifixions. Syrian and Arab auxiliaries disemboweled refugees searching for swallowed valuables. Corpses were discarded outside the city creating health hazards.
On 8 Av Roman forces breached the temple outer court. On the tenth of Av a soldier hurled burning wood into the northern chamber igniting fire that consumed the entire structure. Josephus claimed Titus ordered fires extinguished when awakened from sleep. However many soldiers ignored orders or deliberately spread flames. Titus entered the Holy of Holies commanding his troops to stop destruction yet they continued looting and setting ablaze.
Historians debate whether destruction was intentional or accidental. Sulpicius Severus suggested Titus deliberately ordered the temple's fall to eradicate Jewish religion. Modern scholars like Lester L. Grabbe find Josephus's account unbelievable given Roman discipline standards. Doron Mendels argues Romans targeted the temple because it represented central rebellion. James Rives maintains the goal was eliminating cultic organizations hindering integration into empire. Steve Mason contends Titus viewed destruction as military necessity rather than embarrassment. Valerius Flaccus celebrated Titus scattering firebrands causing havoc in every turret. Cassius Dio recorded Jews defending themselves more vigorously near the temple accepting death willingly.
After the temple fell some rebels sought parley with Titus meeting on a bridge overlooking ruins. He offered final surrender terms but they demanded safe passage to desert with families. Offended Titus ended talks declaring no further terms would be given. A day later he authorized burning remaining city sections including archives Acra fortress council chamber Ophel district. Flames reached Helena of Adiabene's palace and Pool of Siloam. Rebels retreated to Herod's Palace massacring those inside before looting contents.
Roman soldiers carried out indiscriminate massacres killing civilians in streets and homes. Families were found starved to death while others killed outright. Killing ceased only at nightfall. By morning Jerusalem burned entirely. Around 11,000 prisoners died from starvation either through neglect or refusal to eat. Josephus reported 97,000 enslaved after Romans killed armed elderly survivors. Forty thousand released by emperor faced uncertain futures. John captured emerging from tunnels sentenced to life imprisonment. Simon caught hiding underground emerged dressed white tunic purple mantle evoking royal claim. Both transported to Rome for triumph ceremonies.
In summer 71 CE Vespasian and Titus held triumph celebrating victory in Judaea. This event unique in Roman history dedicated solely subjugating existing province population. Over 300,000 spectators attended dawn procession starting Temple of Isis Porticus Octaviae. Procession showcased purple tapestries rugs gems divine statues decorated animals. Multi-story scaffolds displayed golden frames ivory work tapestries illustrating war scenes. Vespasian and Titus rode together triumphal chariots Domitian riding separately beside them.
Sacred items paraded included menorah golden Table Showbread Jewish religious texts. Seven hundred captives marched symbols conquest according to Josephus making display own destruction. Triumph culminated execution Simon bar Giora scourged hanged Mamertine Prison following custom. Three strongholds Herodium Machaerus Masada remained rebel controlled until eliminated within two years. Legio X Fretensis garrisoned ruins nearly two centuries confirmed inscriptions tiles bricks bearing legion stamp. Camp exact location remains uncertain though presence discouraged Jewish return. Every tree around city cut leaving land bare virgin soil during revolt.
Destruction Second Temple marked profound shift Jewish people identity practice. Loss temple center religious national life forced adaptation future displacement uncertainty. Sectarianism declined ending High Priesthood role. Pharisees emerged central force reshaping unifying Judaism laying groundwork rabbinic tradition. Under successors rabbis transitioned model focused Torah study communal prayer acts loving-kindness marking beginning new religious era adapting absence temple sovereign state.
Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai smuggled Jerusalem coffin pretending dead met Vespasian prophesying rise imperial throne secured establishment rabbinic center Yavneh. From there disciples laid groundwork form Judaism no longer centered temple. Avot de-Rabbi Natan illustrates Ben Zakkai teaching acts loving-kindness equivalent temple sacrificial atonement. Emerging rabbinic approach advocated balanced response tempering celebrations remembering destruction avoiding excessive mourning disrupting daily life. Rabbi Joshua countered advocates abstention meat wine due temple offerings arguing logic required abandoning bread fruit water leaving opponents speechless. Period saw assume leading role reshaping Judaism introducing enactments adapted practices function absence temple.
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Common questions
When did the siege of Jerusalem 70 CE begin and end?
The siege began in spring 69 CE when Titus returned to Judaea with his army. The destruction of the Second Temple occurred on the tenth of Av during the summer of 70 CE.
Who commanded the Roman forces during the siege of Jerusalem 70 CE?
Titus led the Roman army consisting of Legio V Macedonica, Legio X Fretensis, and Legio XV Apollinaris. Tiberius Julius Alexander served as his second-in-command throughout the campaign.
How many people were inside Jerusalem during the siege of 70 CE?
Tacitus recorded that 600,000 people were besieged within the walls though modern historians consider this figure exaggerated. Josephus reported 97,000 enslaved after Romans killed armed elderly survivors while around 11,000 prisoners died from starvation.
What happened to the Second Temple during the siege of Jerusalem 70 CE?
On the tenth of Av a soldier hurled burning wood into the northern chamber igniting fire that consumed the entire structure. Titus entered the Holy of Holies commanding his troops to stop destruction yet they continued looting and setting ablaze.
Where did the Jewish leadership go after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE?
Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai smuggled himself out of Jerusalem in a coffin pretending dead to meet Vespasian. He secured establishment of a rabbinic center at Yavneh where disciples laid groundwork for Judaism no longer centered on temple.