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Shopping mall: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Shopping mall
Victor Gruen, the man who invented the modern shopping mall, would eventually come to hate his own creation. Born in Vienna in 1903, Gruen was a Jewish architect who fled the Nazis to the United States in 1938, bringing with him a vision of urban planning that prioritized community and pedestrian life. His 1956 design for the Southdale Center in Edina, Minnesota, was intended to be a utopian alternative to the chaotic, car-dominated city streets. It was the first fully enclosed, climate-controlled shopping center, featuring a central courtyard with a fountain and trees, designed to mimic the feeling of a public square. Gruen envisioned these spaces as the new town centers where people could gather, socialize, and shop without the threat of weather or traffic. He deliberately placed department stores at opposite ends of the building to force shoppers to walk through the entire length of the mall, ensuring that smaller stores in the middle would get foot traffic. However, the American real estate industry stripped away his social engineering. Developers ignored his plans for public plazas and residential integration, focusing instead on the profit margins of retail space. They embraced the suburban sprawl Gruen had warned against, creating vast parking lots that consumed the land he had hoped to preserve. By the time he died in 1970, Gruen was publicly denouncing the very concept he had pioneered, calling the resulting suburban developments "land wasting seas of parking" and lamenting the destruction of traditional downtowns.
From Arcade to Enclosure
The concept of a covered shopping space predates the modern mall by centuries, evolving from the public markets of the Middle East to the elegant arcades of 19th-century Europe. The first covered shopping passage in the world was the Passage du Caire in Paris, built in 1798, followed by the Royal Opera Arcade in London in 1816 and the Burlington Arcade in 1819. These early structures were designed as pedestrian promenades where the wealthy could stroll and shop in a protected environment, insulated from the mud and noise of the streets. The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, which opened in 1877, set a new standard with its grand iron and glass architecture, inspiring the term "galleria" for similar structures worldwide. In the United States, the Arcade in Providence, Rhode Island, built in 1828, claimed the title of the first shopping arcade. These early examples were often located in dense city centers, serving as extensions of the existing urban fabric. The transition to the suburban mall began in the mid-20th century, driven by the rise of automobile culture and the post-World War II boom. Early open-air centers like Market Square in Lake Forest, Illinois, in 1916, and Country Club Plaza in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1924, were designed specifically for the car. The enclosed mall, however, did not become mainstream until the mid-1950s. The Valley Fair Shopping Center in Appleton, Wisconsin, opened on the 10th of March 1955, featuring modern amenities like central heating and cooling. Just months later, the world's first fully enclosed shopping mall, named Shopping, opened in Luleå, Sweden, designed by architect Ralph Erskine. This shift from the pedestrian arcade to the car-dependent enclosed mall marked a fundamental change in how society interacted with commerce and public space.
Who invented the modern shopping mall and when was the first one built?
Victor Gruen invented the modern shopping mall, and the first fully enclosed, climate-controlled shopping center, Southdale Center, opened in Edina, Minnesota, in 1956. Gruen, a Jewish architect born in Vienna in 1903, fled the Nazis to the United States in 1938 to bring his vision of community-focused urban planning to America. The Southdale Center featured a central courtyard with a fountain and trees to mimic a public square, though Gruen eventually came to hate his own creation due to the resulting suburban sprawl.
What was the first covered shopping passage in the world and when did it open?
The first covered shopping passage in the world was the Passage du Caire in Paris, which opened in 1798. This structure was followed by the Royal Opera Arcade in London in 1816 and the Burlington Arcade in 1819, all designed as pedestrian promenades for the wealthy to shop in a protected environment. The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, which opened in 1877, set a new standard with its grand iron and glass architecture and inspired the term galleria for similar structures worldwide.
When did the world's first fully enclosed shopping mall open and where was it located?
The world's first fully enclosed shopping mall, named Shopping, opened in Luleå, Sweden, designed by architect Ralph Erskine just months after the Valley Fair Shopping Center in Appleton, Wisconsin, opened on the 10th of March 1955. The Valley Fair Shopping Center featured modern amenities like central heating and cooling, marking the transition from pedestrian arcades to car-dependent enclosed malls. This shift fundamentally changed how society interacted with commerce and public space by prioritizing climate control and automobile access.
Which mall is the largest in the world and when did it open?
The Iran Mall in Tehran is the largest mall in the world, having opened in 2018 with over 2,500 shops. The South China Mall in Dongguan, China, opened in 2005 with 2,350 stores, though until at least 2014, most of the stores were empty with occupancy rates of only 10%. These massive structures demonstrate that the mall concept has evolved to become the dominant shopping venue in many Asian countries.
Why did the number of dead malls increase in the United States during the 21st century?
The number of dead malls increased in the United States during the 21st century due to a glut of malls creating an extremely over-retailed market and the rise of online shopping as a major competitor. By 2014, nearly 3% of all malls in the United States were considered dying, and nearly one-fifth had vacancy rates considered troubling. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the decline by temporarily closing malls and imposing strict public sanitation requirements, forcing developers to convert malls into other uses like parks, gyms, and educational campuses.
The rise of the shopping mall fundamentally altered the economic and social landscape of the United States, effectively displacing traditional downtowns and high streets. By the 1960s, developers like A. Alfred Taubman of Taubman Centers were refining the mall experience to maximize consumer spending. Taubman introduced terrazzo tiles, indoor fountains, and multi-level layouts that allowed shoppers to make a circuit of all stores. He famously removed carpeting from his malls because he believed it increased friction and slowed down customers, preferring hard surfaces that encouraged movement. He also manipulated lighting, using glass panels to let in fading daylight and supplementing it with electric lights to make the afternoon seem to last longer, encouraging shoppers to linger. This calculated environment was designed to keep people inside and spending money, but it came at the cost of the traditional city center. Malls offered controlled environments, private security, and ample parking, which drew consumers away from downtowns that often suffered from limited parking, poor maintenance, and exposure to the elements. The legal implications of this shift were significant. In 1980, the Supreme Court decision in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins expanded the right of free speech within privately owned malls, acknowledging their role as modern public squares. Despite these legal protections, the economic reality was stark. By 2007, no new malls were built in America for the first time in 50 years. The number of shopping centers exploded from 4,500 in 1960 to nearly 108,000 by 2010, creating a market that was "extremely over-retailed." The result was a wave of "dead malls" and "greyfield" estates, with vacancy rates soaring and entire communities left with empty shells of their former commercial heart.
The Vertical City
As land prices soared in densely populated cities, the concept of the mall evolved from a horizontal sprawl to a vertical phenomenon. The idea of the vertical mall was originally conceived in the late 1960s by the Mafco Company, a division of Marshall Field & Co. The Water Tower Place in Chicago, built in 1975, was a pioneering example, featuring an eight-level atrium-style retail mall that sat atop a block-long base containing a hotel, luxury condominiums, and office space. This design was a response to the constraints of high land costs and the need to maximize retail space in urban cores. Vertical malls became particularly common in East and Southeast Asia, where cities like Hong Kong and Tokyo faced severe space limitations. In Hong Kong, malls like Times Square, Dragon Centre, and ISQUARE utilize elevators and escalators to move shoppers between multiple levels, creating a dense network of retail and entertainment. The challenge for these designs is to overcome the natural tendency of shoppers to move horizontally and encourage them to move up and down. Some vertical malls are built on difficult terrain, such as the Darwin Shopping Centre in Shrewsbury, UK, which is split over seven floors vertically and two locations horizontally, connected by elevators and bridge walkways. Even local establishments like McDonald's in Shrewsbury were split into four stories, featuring medieval castle vaults with arrowslits in the basement dining rooms. This vertical integration represents a radical departure from the suburban sprawl of the mid-20th century, adapting the mall concept to the realities of modern urban density and the need for mixed-use development.
The Global Expansion
While the United States has seen a decline in the traditional mall model, the concept has thrived and evolved differently across the globe. In Europe, the term "shopping centre" is used more broadly, covering everything from small pedestrian precincts to massive regional malls. The UK, for instance, has a reported 222 malls, with large examples like Westquay in Southampton and the Trafford Centre in Greater Manchester. These centers are often located in city centers, surrounded by subsidiary open-air shopping streets, and are integrated into the historic fabric of the city. In contrast, Russia has seen a boom in new malls near major cities, such as the MEGA malls near Moscow, which were financed by international investors and popular with the emerging middle class. Asia has become the new frontier for the largest malls in the world. The Iran Mall in Tehran, opened in 2018, is the largest in the world with over 2,500 shops. The South China Mall in Dongguan, China, opened in 2005 with 2,350 stores, though until at least 2014, most of the stores were empty, with occupancy rates of only 10%. The Philippines has seen a massive expansion of malls, with the SM Mall of Asia in Pasay being the largest in the country, featuring IT parks, hotels, and amusement parks. These global examples demonstrate that the mall is not a uniquely American phenomenon but a flexible format that adapts to local economic and cultural conditions. In many European and Asian countries, shopping malls continue to grow and thrive, often serving as the dominant shopping venue for the region.
The Retail Apocalypse
The decline of the American shopping mall in the 21st century has been driven by a perfect storm of economic factors, technological change, and shifting consumer habits. In the mid-1990s, malls were still being constructed at a rate of 140 a year, but by 2001, a PricewaterhouseCoopers study found that underperforming and vacant malls were an emerging problem. The number of dead malls increased significantly in the early 21st century, with high vacancy rates becoming the norm. By 2014, nearly 3% of all malls in the United States were considered "dying," and nearly one-fifth had vacancy rates considered "troubling." The fundamental problem was a glut of malls, creating a market that was "extremely over-retailed." The average American had 24.5 square feet of retail space per capita, compared to just 4.5 square feet per capita in Europe. Online shopping emerged as a major competitor, accounting for an increasing share of total retail sales. In 2013, roughly 200 out of 1,300 malls across the United States were going out of business. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the decline, with government regulations temporarily closing malls and imposing strict public sanitation requirements. In response, developers have converted malls into other uses, including parks, movie theaters, gyms, and even fishing lakes. The 600,000 square foot Highland Mall in Texas will become a campus for Austin Community College, while the So Ouest mall outside of Paris was designed to resemble elegant, Louis XV-style apartments. The retail apocalypse has forced a reimagining of the mall's purpose, transforming it from a place of pure commerce to a space of experience and community.
The New Experience Economy
To survive the decline of traditional retail, successful malls have had to reinvent themselves as experiential destinations. The formula of enclosed space with stores attached, accessible only by automobile, is no longer enough. Developers have added entertainment and experiential features, such as indoor amusement parks, movie theaters, and gyms. The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, the largest mall in the United States, features a Nickelodeon Universe indoor amusement park at its center, which covers an area of 130,000 square feet. The West Edmonton Mall in Canada, the largest in Canada, includes Galaxyland, a large indoor amusement park with an area of 69,000 square feet. These additions are designed to draw people in for reasons other than shopping, creating a destination that offers a full day of entertainment. Some malls have also converted to other specialized shopping center formats, such as power centers, lifestyle centers, and festival marketplaces. The Shops & Restaurants at Hudson Yards in New York City, which opened in 2019, is one of the first two malls built recently, featuring a "Fifth Avenue" mix of shops like H&M, Zara, and Sephora. The American Dream in Meadowlands, New Jersey, opened in 2019 and includes a DreamWorks Water Park and Big Snow indoor ski resort. These new developments are designed to compete with the convenience of online shopping by offering experiences that cannot be replicated on a screen. The future of the mall lies in its ability to adapt, transforming from a simple collection of stores into a vibrant community hub that offers something for everyone.