The first known text mentioning Sanaa dates back to the 5th century BCE, written in the Musnad script. Ancient inscriptions refer to the settlement as San'a, a name derived from the Sabaic word mašna'a meaning fortress. The Kingdom of Saba founded this city in the 1st century CE as a secondary capital while their primary seat remained at Marib. Archaeological evidence suggests the Sabaeans used Sanaa as a military base for expeditions against the southern kingdom of Himyar. Several ancient inscriptions announce triumphant returns to Sanaa following wars. King Yousef Athar, also known as Dhu Nuwas, made Sanaa the capital of his Himyarite kingdom before Axumite viceroys took control. Later tradition holds that Abyssinian conqueror Abrahah built a Christian church within these walls. The 10th-century Arab historian al-Hamdani wrote that Sanaa's ancient name was Azal, though no contemporary Sabaean inscription records this name. Al-Hamdani described how Sabaeans walled the city under ruler Sha'r Awtar and possibly constructed the Ghumdan Palace. This fortified position served as an urban hub connecting trade routes from Ma'rib in the east to the Red Sea in the west.
Islamic Dynasties And Ottoman Rule
From the era of Muhammad until independent sub-states emerged, Sanaa persisted as the governing seat of Yemen. The Caliph's deputy managed affairs through Mikhlaf Sana'a alongside other regional districts. Imam Al-Shafi'i visited multiple times during the 8th century, writing La budda min San'a or Sanaa must be seen. During the 9th to 10th centuries, observers noted the city had hard concrete surfaces and fine pastureland with clean walking areas. Persian geographer Ibn Rustah declared it the greatest city in Yemen regarding population and prosperity. In 1062, Ali al-Sulayhi took control with his wife Queen Asma establishing their capital there. They aligned with Egypt's Fatimid Caliphate rather than Baghdad-based Abbasids. After Ali's assassination by Najahid rivals, his daughter Arwa transferred power to Jibla in 1067. The Hamdanid dynasty subsequently controlled Sanaa before Saladin sent brother Turan-Shah to conquer Yemen in 1173. Ayyubid forces gained control in 1175 and switched religious allegiance to Sunni Muslims. Sultan Tughtekin ibn Ayyub improved the city including Bustan al-Sultan gardens on the western bank of Sa'ilah. Ottoman Empire entered Yemen in 1538 under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Military leader Özdemir Pasha conquered Sanaa in 1547 allowing European captains from Aden and Mocha special trade privileges. Local Zaydi imams led by Imam al-Mu'ayyad reasserted control in 1602 forcing out Ottomans completely by 1629. Ahmed Muhtar Pasha finally captured the city again in 1872 implementing Tanzimat reforms building new roads schools and hospitals.