Roman people
The traditional date for Rome's foundation, 753 BC, remains a point of myth and uncertainty rather than historical fact. Ancient authors wove together stories of Latinus, Evander of Pallantium, and the Trojan hero Aeneas to explain how the city began. Romulus appears only later in these complex webs of origin narratives, serving as the mythical founder many generations after the initial migration tales. Most ancient writers agreed that their civilization had been founded by a mixture of migrants and fugitives seeking sanctuary. This early identity was not based on bloodlines but on political refuge and shared destiny.
By the 6th century BC, inhabitants of Rome had conquered neighboring Latin settlements like Antemnae and Collatia. They defeated Alba Longa, which had previously united the Latin people under its leadership. The position now belonged to Rome itself. From the middle of the 4th century onwards, Rome won victories that saw them rise to rule all of Italy south of the Po river by 270 BC. These early Romans were composed mainly of Latin-speaking Italic people known simply as Latins. They shared a marked Mediterranean character related to other neighbors such as the Falisci. Their homeland was called Latium, and they were Latins themselves.
Five different mechanisms existed for acquiring Roman citizenship during the Republic era. Serving in the Roman army remained one primary path for non-citizens to gain full rights. Holding office in cities with the Latin right offered another route into the citizen body. Direct grants from the government provided citizenship to individuals or entire communities as block grants. Slaves freed by Roman citizens also automatically became free men with citizenship status.
By the late 3rd century BC, about a third of the people in Italy south of the Po river had been made Roman citizens. These new citizens were liable for military service while others became allies frequently called on to join Roman wars. In 49 BC, citizenship rights extended to the people of Cisalpine Gaul through Julius Caesar's decree. The number of Romans increased rapidly through further extensions over subsequent centuries. Emperor Caracalla issued the Antonine Constitution in AD 212 which granted citizenship rights to all free inhabitants of the empire. This single act contributed to a vast increase in people bearing the name Aurelius throughout the provinces. By AD 14, four to seven percent of free people in the provinces were already Roman citizens before this final expansion.
Roman authors like Tacitus and Suetonius expressed concerns regarding blood purity as citizens from outside Italian regions increased in number. Neither author suggested that naturalization should stop but argued manumissions and grants should become less frequent. Their concerns did not match modern ideas of race or ethnicity and had little to do with skin color or physical appearance. Terms such as Aethiop carried no social implications when used for black people in ancient Rome.
Phenotype-related stereotypes certainly existed yet inherited physical characteristics typically held no relevance to social status. People who looked different from the typical Mediterranean populace faced no exclusion from any profession. Records show no stigmas or biases against mixed-race relationships within Roman society. The main dividing social differences rested on class or rank rather than physical features. Slaves practiced various ethnic affiliations without being enslaved due to their ethnic background. English historian Emma Dench noted it was notoriously difficult to detect slaves by their appearance in Ancient Rome. Cicero sneered at peoples like Athenians who prided themselves on shared descent while finding pride in Rome's status as a mongrel nation.
Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire through late antiquity before eventually becoming the only legal faith. Christianized Roman aristocracy had to redefine their identity in Christian terms as power slipped from pagan hands. Conservative elements of the pagan elite turned to emphasizing they were the only true Romans preserving traditional religion and literary culture. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus lived between 345 and 402 AD and argued that true Romans followed the traditional way of life including ancient religions.
Symmachus believed adherence to those religions would protect the empire from enemies just as in previous centuries. Church leaders such as Ambrose, Archbishop of Mediolanum, launched formal assaults on paganism and its defenders. Ambrose saw Rome as greatest city not because of its pagan past but because of its Christian present. Throughout late antiquity, Romanness became increasingly defined by Christian faith which eventually became the standard. Emperors and courts were viewed as Romans par excellence once Christianity gained imperial adoption. The rise of Christianity did not go unnoticed or unchallenged by conservative elements aware that power was slipping from their hands.
The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century ended political domination in Western Europe though Roman identity survived as a political resource. During Justinian I's wars from 533 to 555, eastern authors rewrote history to portray the west as lost to barbarian invasions rather than integrated rulers. By the end of these reconquests, imperial control returned to northern Africa and Italy but lands beyond frontier remained lost to barbarians. Roman identity declined dramatically in still barbarian-ruled regions like Gaul, Spain, and Britain during this period.
In Sub-Roman Britain, people of large urban centers clung to Roman identity while rural populations integrated with Germanic colonizers such as Jutes, Angles, and Saxons. Once cities declined, Roman identity faded away in Britain as well. The division of Western Europe into multiple kingdoms accelerated disappearance of Roman identity as local identities replaced previously unifying bonds. Latin gradually developed into modern Romance languages while largely Roman law continued on. By Charlemagne's imperial coronation in 800, Roman identity largely disappeared in Western Europe and fell to low social status. Living Romans had poor reputation with records of anti-Roman attacks yet name of Rome remained source of great political power.
Eastern Mediterranean populations under Byzantine control retained Roman as their predominant identity throughout centuries after the 5th century. Majority saw themselves as Roman beyond doubt with emperor ruling from Constantinople known as New Rome. In early Byzantine Empire, term extended to all Christian citizens loyal to emperor rather than united through ethnic descent. Western Europeans referred to it as Greek empire inhabited by Greeks from 6th century onwards though early Byzantines found terms like Hellenes offensive until at least 11th century.
As Byzantine Empire lost territories in Egypt, Levant, and Italy, Christians living there ceased being recognized as Romans similar to North Africans under Vandal rule. Decrease in diversity meant term applied only to now dominant Hellenic population remaining in territories. By late 7th century, Greek began being referred to as rhomaisti meaning Roman way of speaking. Chronicles written in 10th century show Rhōmaîoi appearing as just one ethnicity alongside Armenians. Late 11th century references describe people as Rhōmaîos by birth signaling completion of transformation into ethnic description. Capture of Constantinople by Latin crusaders in 1204 ended unbroken continuity though Nicene emperors John III and Theodore II explicitly stated present Rhōmaîoi were descendants of Ancient Greeks.
Residents of Rome continue identifying with demonym Roman to this day with city proper home to about 2.8 million citizens. Since collapse of western empire, Papacy continued institution of Pontifex Maximus while governments inspired by ancient Republic revived four times. Commune of Rome formed in 12th century followed by Cola di Rienzo's government using titles of tribune and senator in 14th century. Revolutionary France established sister republic in 18th century restoring office of Roman consul before short-lived Roman Republic emerged in 1849.
Roman self-identification among Greeks only began losing ground with Greek War of Independence when name Hellene rose to replace it. Names such as Hellene and Greece already used for country by other nations while Romioi became associated with Greeks still under Ottoman rule. Modern Greek people sometimes use Romioi to refer to themselves alongside term Romaic for their language. Romansh people of Switzerland descended from populations resisting assimilation by Germanic tribes during 5th and 6th centuries call themselves rumantsch deriving from Latin romanice. Romanian nation calls itself români though how they adopted names remains unclear despite theory of Daco-Roman continuity following Trajan's conquest of Dacia between 98 and 117.
Common questions
When was Rome traditionally founded according to ancient sources?
The traditional date for Rome's foundation is 753 BC, though this remains a point of myth and uncertainty rather than historical fact. Ancient authors wove together stories of Latinus, Evander of Pallantium, and the Trojan hero Aeneas to explain how the city began.
How did Roman citizenship spread across Italy by the late 3rd century BC?
By the late 3rd century BC, about a third of the people in Italy south of the Po river had been made Roman citizens through mechanisms like military service or direct government grants. These new citizens were liable for military service while others became allies frequently called on to join Roman wars.
What decree extended Roman citizenship to Cisalpine Gaul in 49 BC?
In 49 BC, citizenship rights extended to the people of Cisalpine Gaul through Julius Caesar's decree. The number of Romans increased rapidly through further extensions over subsequent centuries until Emperor Caracalla issued the Antonine Constitution in AD 212 which granted citizenship rights to all free inhabitants of the empire.
Did physical appearance determine social status in ancient Roman society?
Phenotype-related stereotypes certainly existed yet inherited physical characteristics typically held no relevance to social status. People who looked different from the typical Mediterranean populace faced no exclusion from any profession and records show no stigmas or biases against mixed-race relationships within Roman society.
When did Christian faith become the standard definition of Romanness in late antiquity?
Throughout late antiquity, Romanness became increasingly defined by Christian faith which eventually became the standard after Church leaders such as Ambrose launched formal assaults on paganism. Emperors and courts were viewed as Romans par excellence once Christianity gained imperial adoption during the period when power slipped from pagan hands.
How did Roman identity survive in Eastern Europe after the fall of the Western Empire?
Eastern Mediterranean populations under Byzantine control retained Roman as their predominant identity throughout centuries after the 5th century with emperor ruling from Constantinople known as New Rome. By the late 7th century, Greek began being referred to as rhomaisti meaning Roman way of speaking and late 11th century references describe people as Rhōmaîos by birth signaling completion of transformation into ethnic description.
All sources
3 references cited across the entry
- 1bookA History of RomaniaIoan Bolovan — East European Monographs — 1996
- 2harvnbKaplanis (2014) p. 92Kaplanis — 2014
- 3harvnbMerry (2004) p. 376Merry — 2004