Roman Egypt

• 1. Provincial Formation And Governance

  ›

  In August 30 BC, following the Battle of Alexandria, the defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra took their own lives. Egypt was seized by Octavian as his personal possession rather than a standard province. The legal status was settled in January 27 BC when Octavian received the honorific name Augustus. This event transformed Egypt into an imperial province of the newly established Roman Empire. Augustus ruled Egypt as the Roman pharaoh while dismantling Ptolemaic institutions. The government administration was wholly reformed to maximize revenue for Rome. A prefect of Aegyptus held combined responsibility for military security, finance, taxation, and justice. This governor was appointed by the emperor for a multi-year term with equestrian rank. Unlike other provinces governed by senators, this position required an official of the equestrian order. The prefect's annual salary reached 200,000 sesterces making it one of the highest-paid posts available. Service as governor often marked the penultimate stage in a praetorian prefect's career before retirement. Yearly in Lower Egypt and once every two years in Upper Egypt, the prefect held a conventus. During these meetings legal trials were conducted and administrative practices examined between January and April. Evidence exists of more than 60 edicts issued by these Roman governors over centuries. To the government at Alexandria besides the prefect, emperors appointed several subordinate procurators. These officials all held equestrian rank and similar ducenarian salary brackets from Commodus onward. An administrator of the Idios Logos handled special revenues like proceeds of bona caduca property. Another senior legal official known as the iuridicus was also imperially appointed. From Hadrian's reign financial powers were devolved to other procurators including a dioiketes chief financial officer. A procurator could deputize as the prefect's representative where necessary. Local government outside Alexandria remained divided into traditional regions called nomoi. Magistrates drawn from the liturgy system governed mētropoleis or major towns. Each strategos served as an intermediary between the prefect and villages while legally responsible for administration. Royal scribes supplemented each strategos with duties regarding financial affairs and land records. Dedicated financial secretaries oversaw accounts for individual nomes reporting directly to Alexandria. In 200/201 Septimius Severus granted each metropolis and Alexandria a boulē town council. The epistrategos mediated between the prefect in Alexandria and strategoi in mētropoleis. Their role performed more general functions than specific administrative duties. A sexagenarian salary of 60,000 sesterces annually accompanied this position. Each village kome received service from a village scribe whose term usually lasted three years. These literate clerks informed strategoi about persons due to perform unpaid public service. Other liturgical officials collected taxes managed granaries drove cattle and supervised cargo. Constant efforts were made by eligible people to escape these impositions throughout Trajan's reign.

  156

• 2. Military Garrison And Border Defense

  ›

  The Roman garrison was concentrated at Nicopolis a district of Alexandria rather than strategic Memphis. Only a few papyri survive from Alexandria making legionary life largely unknown compared to other provinces. Six bronze military diplomas dating between 83 and 206 provide main documentary evidence for soldiers' service history. These inscribed certificates rewarded 25 or 26 years of service with Roman citizenship rights. The army was more Greek-speaking than in other provinces though recruitment varied over time. At least one legion remained permanently stationed at Nicopolis alongside strong cavalry forces. These troops guarded the prefect's residence against uprisings among Alexandrians while poised to march quickly. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries around 8,000 soldiers resided within Alexandria's huge population. Initially three legions garrisoned Egypt including Legio III Cyrenaica and Legio XXII Deiotariana. A third legion's identity remains uncertain but it withdrew before 23 AD during Tiberius's reign. After August 119 the III Cyrenaica left Egypt while XXII Deiotariana transferred later. Before 127/8 Legio II Traiana arrived remaining as the main component for two centuries. Three or four alae of cavalry each numbered around 500 horsemen throughout the region. Between seven and ten cohortes of infantry existed each about 500 strong though some were mixed units. Besides the main garrison detachments permanently garrisoned the southern border on Nile's First Cataract. Philae and Syene protected Egypt from enemies to the south guarding against rebellion in Thebaid. Archaeological work by Hélène Cuvigny revealed ostraca giving detailed information on soldiers' lives along Eastern Desert roads. An outpost known from inscription existed on Farasan island off west coast Arabian Peninsula. Many Roman soldiers recruited locally not only among non-citizen subjects but also legionaries requiring citizenship. An increasing proportion came from local origin under Flavian dynasty with even higher numbers under Severan dynasty. As many as three quarters of legionaries under Severan rule were offspring raised in canabae settlements surrounding Nicopolis. Only about one eighth were Alexandrian citizens themselves. Egyptians received Latin names upon joining unlike other provinces where indigenous names nearly unknown. One surviving diploma lists soldier birthplace as Coptos while others show veterans retired to Egypt from Chios and Hippo Regius. Evidence from 2nd century suggests most recruits came from Egypt supplemented by Africa Syria Asia Minor Balkans Thracia and Syria. Large numbers mustered in Asia Minor may have supplemented garrison after Diaspora Revolt Jewish uprising. Regular units included Scythians stationed in Thebaid by Justinian the Great alongside limitanei garrisoning frontier.

  937

• 3. Social Stratification And Ethnic Divisions

  ›

  Most inhabitants were peasants working as tenant-farmers for high rents in kind cultivating sacred land belonging to temples. Division between rural village life where Egyptian language spoken and metropolis where Koine Greek frequented gymnasias marked significant cultural split. This division persisted despite Constitutio Antoniniana of 212 making all free Egyptians Roman citizens. Romans began social hierarchy revolving around ethnicity and place of residence. Other than Roman citizens a Greek citizen of Greek cities held highest status while rural Egyptian occupied lowest class. In between stood metropolite almost certainly of Hellenic origin gaining citizenship moving up ranks very difficult. Enlistment in army offered one route ascending another caste though only Roman citizens served legions. Many Greeks found way into legions while native Egyptians joined auxiliary forces attaining citizenship upon discharge. Different groups faced different tax rates based on social class distinctions. Roman citizens and Alexandrian citizens exempted from poll tax entirely. Hellenized inhabitants of nome capitals paid low rate while native Egyptians paid higher rate. Native Egyptians barred from serving army with other defined legal distinctions between classes. Within mētropoleis existed Hellenic socio-political élite urban landowning aristocracy dominating Egypt by 2nd and 3rd centuries. These elites controlled large private estates through which they dominated administration. Augustan period saw creation of urban communities with Hellenic landowning elites putting them position privilege power. These elites enjoyed more self-administration than Egyptian population falling lower poll-taxes than local native Egyptians fellahin. Egyptian landholders paid about three times more per aroura of land in tax-rates than elites. They paid four to five times more than Alexandrians per aroura of land in tax-rates. Privileges extended even to corporal punishments where Romans protected from whipping while native Egyptians whipped. Alexandrians had privilege merely beaten with rod instead of full flogging. Other Greek cities like Antinoöpolis enjoyed privileges similar to Alexandria including exemption from paying poll taxes. Gnomon Idios Logos shows connection law status laying out revenues mainly fines confiscation property apt few groups. Freed slave takes former master's social status confirmed by document demonstrating social controls monetary means based status property. City Oxyrhynchus many papyri remains contain much information subject social structure these cities alongside Alexandria diverse set-up institutions continued use after takeover. Primary way becoming citizen Roman Alexandria showing deme registering both parents Alexandrian citizens. Candidate gymnasium let into ephebus if showed both parents members list compiled government 4, 5 AD. Council elders known gerousia did not answer boulai vital part metropolis providing elite group citizens. Romans looked these elites provide municipal officers well-educated administrators paying lower poll-taxes than locals.

  41216

• 4. Economic Systems And Grain Export

  ›

  A massive amount Aegyptus grain shipped downriver north feed population Alexandria export Roman capital. Frequent complaints oppression extortion taxpayers collected appointed officials assessed taxes cash kind variety small taxes customs dues. Ptolemaic state retained categorization land earlier pharaohs but Roman Empire introduced distinction private public lands. Earlier system categorized little land private property developing complex arrangement dozens types land-holding. Land status determined hydrological juridical function property three main categories ownership held Ptolemaic system: sacred property belonging temples royal land forming most revenue gifted land leased cleruchy system. Roman government actively encouraged privatization land increase private enterprise manufacture commerce trade low tax rates favored private owners entrepreneurs. Poorer people gained livelihood tenants state-owned land property emperor wealthy private landlords relatively much more heavily burdened rentals tending remain fairly high level. Overall degree monetization complexity economy even village level intense goods moved exchanged medium coin large scale towns larger villages developed industrial commercial activity close conjunction exploitation predominant agricultural base. Volume trade internal external reached peak 1st and 2nd centuries. By end 3rd century major problems evident series debasements imperial currency undermined confidence coinage. Government itself contributing demanding irregular tax payments kind channeled directly main consumers army personnel. Local administration councils careless recalcitrant inefficient evident need firm purposeful reform faced reigns Diocletian Constantine I. Numerous indications Roman trade India period particularly between Roman Egypt Indian subcontinent Kushan ruler Huvishka 150, 180 CE incorporated coins Hellenistic-Egyptian god Serapis name Sarapo. Serapis supreme deity pantheon Alexandria suggesting Huvishka strong orientation towards Roman Egypt important market products coming Kushan Empire. Debates over economic reforms continued throughout late empire as grain shipments remained critical lifeline for Rome.

  3719

• 5. Architectural Evolution And Urban Planning

  ›

  Roman public buildings erected governing strategos local gymnasiarch most cases not survived evidence rare probable classical architecture Graeco-Roman world employing classical orders stone buildings. Prominent remains include two Roman theatres Pelusium temple Serapis tetrastyle Diospolis Magna Thebes Philae triumphal arch temples dedicated worship emperor Augustus goddess Roma. Substantial remains known particular three mētropoleis Heracleopolis Magna Oxyrhynchus Hermopolis Magna Antinoöpolis city founded emperor Hadrian. All sacred cities dedicated particular deities ruins methodically surveyed sketched intellectuals attached Napoleon's campaign eventually published Description de l'Égypte series. Illustrations produced Edme-François Jomard Vivant Denon form much evidence ruins since 19th century disappeared. South Thebes mētropoleis largely without classical buildings near Antinoöpolis classical influence stronger. Most built classical Hippodamian grid employed Hellenistic polis Alexandria typical Roman pattern Cardo north, south Decumanus Maximus east, west thoroughfares meeting centres Athribis Antinoöpolis. Vivant Denon made sketches ruins Oxyrhynchus Edme-François Jomard wrote description together historical photographs few surviving remains best evidence classical architecture city dedicated medjed sacred species Mormyrus fish. Two groups buildings survive Heracleopolis Magna sacred Heracles/Hercules otherwise known Jomard work mainstay knowledge architecture Antinoöpolis founded Hadrian honour deified lover Antinous. Napoleonic-era evidence important documenting Hermopolis Magna more buildings survive worship Thoth equated Hermes/Mercury. Oldest known remains church architecture Egypt Roman village Kellis following house church early 4th century three-aisled apsed basilica Constantinian period pastaphoria either side third church accompanied Christian cemetery. Churches built quickly victory Constantine Licinius 4th century even towns Ain el-Gedida Dakhla Oasis own churches. Earliest monumental basilica remains survive Antinoöpolis five-aisled apsed basilica facing east set cemetery long wide. Late 4th century monastic churches differed building rectangular sanctuaries rather semi-circular ones east ends altar stood place apse aedicula niche embellished arch columns applied plaster. 5th century regional styles monumental church basilica pastaphoria emerged coast Mediterranean northern part country basilicas three five aisles Middle Egypt Upper Egypt often given colonnade way structure forming continuous ambulatory addition transverse fourth aisle west other three. Eastern Egypt columns colonnade emphasized sanctuary distinguished triumphal arch front transept plan adopted urban environments Abu Mena Marea western Nile Delta. Middle 5th century Great Basilica largest churches Egypt built Hermopolis Magna central crossroads city unusually three-aisled transept basilica semicircular extensions north south walls. Coptic White Monastery Sohag 5th-century church built triconch apse unusual design found Sohag Dayr Anbā Bishoi Wadi El Natrun Dayr as-Suyrān Dakhla Oasis Western Desert Dayr Abū Mattā Dendera. Tomb-chapel White Monastery founder Shenoute also built triconch plan first instance monastic founder tomb monastery. Some White Monastery limestone ashlars spolia stones likely taken pharaonic buildings Upper Egyptian Athribis nearby. Main church interior three-aisled basilica ambon seat usual Egyptian western transverse aisle exterior resembles Egyptian temple cavetto cornices roof. Unusually Coptic churches White Monastery church two narthexes perhaps accommodate worshippers outside monastic community. Affiliated Red Monastery nearby preserves extensive painted decoration Late Antiquity anywhere probably representative period's Egyptian churches interior decoration. Besides main monumental basilica Antinoöpolis two other cruciform churches built later 5th century.

  8101531

• 6. Religious Syncretism And Imperial Cults

  ›

  Worship Egypt rulers interrupted entirely fall Ptolemaic dynasty together predecessor Alexander the Great worshipped Egypto-Hellenistic ruler cult. After Roman conquest Augustus instituted new Roman imperial cult Egypt formally Roman people collectively now ruler Egypt emperors never crowned pharaoh person traditional way evidence systematically incorporated traditional pantheons worshipped traditional priesthoods. Instead image Augustus identified Zeus Eleutherios modelled example Alexander the Great said liberated Egypt old pharaohs. Nevertheless 27 BC Memphis traditional high priest Ptah appointed under Augustus authority senior celebrant Egyptian ruler cult referred priest Caesar. Augustus honoured cult Egypt before death evidence Nero worshipped still living Hadrian particular. While alive emperor usually honoured offerings various gods health usually only after emperor's death deified worshipped god. Letter Claudius written Alexandrians 41 AD rejects offer cult himself permitting divine honours statues reserving cult worship deified Augustus. Juridical purposes imperial oath recalling Ptolemaic precedent sworn name fortune emperor I swear Caesar Imperator son God Zeus Eleutherios Augustus. Official cult superintended archiereus Alexandria All Egypt procurator charge Egypt temples responsible worship imperial deities Serapis country. Archiereus Alexandria All Egypt Roman citizen probably appointed equestrian class official cult differed provinces goddess Roma closely associated Roman Senate introduced Augustus since imperial province Egypt lay beyond reach Senate powers imperium. High priest full title high priests Lords Augusti Great Serapis one responsible temples Egypt whole country indicates cult Serapis connected worship emperors overseen same Roman official. Archiereus existed each nomoi drawn local elite liturgy system high priests responsible maintenance imperial temples cults mētropoleis. These officials mid-1st century AD latest known high priest Lords Augusti all gods high priest city mainly responsible organization imperial cult traditional local cults already priesthoods. Though imposed Roman state overseen provincial capital locally organized direct imperial control attested cult Alexandria. Throughout Egypt sacrificial altars dedicated worship deified emperor Augustus set up dedicated temples sebasteia caesarea. Each sebasteion caesareum administrative functions organizing local cult emperor nevertheless scant evidence worship emperors common private settings Alexandrians frequently hostile emperors themselves. Form imperial cult established reign Augustus largely focused deified first emperor continued until reign Constantine Great. Widow emperor Trajan augusta Plotina deified death Hadrian Dendera temple Aphrodite late empress identified Egyptian goddess Hathor first instance member imperial family besides emperor integrated Egyptian pantheon. Unlike royal cult Ptolemaic dynasty festivals celebrated according Egyptian calendar imperial cult days such emperors birthdays fell according Roman calendar. Cult Serapis Isis syncretic god abundance afterlife united Hellenistic Egyptian features instituted Ptolemy I Soter beginning Ptolemaic period possibly related cult Osiris-Apis. Serapis assumed role Osiris Egyptian pantheon god afterlife regeneration husband fertility goddess Isis father child Horus known Hellenistic world Harpocrates. Emperors sometimes depicted Serapis portraits bearing Serapis distinguishing features unlike most native Egyptian gods common Osiris never depicted animal part-animal form. Caracalla took title Philosarapis indicate devotion cult. Mysteries Isis mystery cult developed outside Egypt reimported country Roman territories elsewhere increasingly celebrated Isis supreme female deity creator-goddess pantheon incorporating Ptolemaic queen-worship tradition. As Isis image motherhood feeding infant Harpocrates Isis goddess magic mysteries. In Roman Egypt cult superintended archiereus Alexandria All Egypt temples Serapis serapea found throughout Egypt oldest serapeum Memphis greatest Serapeum Alexandria. Holy family Serapis Isis Harpocrates worshipped empire 4th century cult became behind Christianity most popular religion Roman world.

  112425