Roman consul
The year 509 BC marks the traditional founding of the Roman Republic and the consulship. Ancient writers claimed the title came from the Latin verb consulere, meaning to take counsel. This explanation likely emerged later as a gloss on the term. The true origin probably lies in con- and sal-, words suggesting get together or sit down together with. In Greek sources, the office appeared as strategos hypatos, translating to supreme general. Later Greeks simply used the word hypatos for the role. Romans called these leaders praetors before 300 BC when consul became common usage. The expulsion of King Tarquin Superbus transferred royal powers to this new dual office. Two men held equal authority to prevent any single person from ruling like a king.
Each consul commanded two legions totaling about 20,000 men during campaigns. They led armies into battle while reading auguries as essential religious rituals. Inside Rome's walls, twelve lictors accompanied every public appearance carrying fasces bundles. These rods contained an axe symbolizing military power known as imperium. When inside the pomerium boundary, lictors removed axes showing citizens could not be executed without trial. Outside city limits consuls held full imperium allowing them to punish soldiers or allies freely. They served as chief judges until 366 BC when praetors took over judicial duties. Consuls also conducted elections and presided over Senate meetings alternating monthly between colleagues. Before foreign ambassadors reached the Senate they met first with consuls who negotiated on behalf of Rome. Their executive power included summoning assemblies and executing laws passed by the people.
Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC transforming the consulship into symbolism. Emperors frequently appointed themselves or relatives as consuls regardless of age requirements. Caligula joked he would make his horse Incitatus consul to belittle Senate authority. Augustus held the office thirteen times while Domitian claimed seventeen terms. By the fourth century men in their early twenties held suffect consulships without prior careers. The Gallic Empire maintained its own pairs of consuls from 260 to 274 AD. Western consulship ended in 534 with Decius Paulinus as final holder. Eastern consulship concluded in 541 under Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Justinian I abolished consular dating in 537 replacing it with regnal year counting. Emperor Leo the Wise finally eliminated the office in Novel 94 of his Basilika during the late ninth century. Greek titles hypatos and apo hypaton became lowly honorary dignities by that time.
The centuriate assembly elected two consuls annually for one-year joint terms. Citizens voted through comitia curiata which granted imperium via lex curiata de imperio law. Originally only patricians could hold the office until 367 BC when Licinio-Sextian rogations opened it partially. Lucius Sextius became first plebeian consul the following year. About fifteen novi homines gained election until Cicero won in 63 BC. Modern historians note thirty percent of pre-Sextius consuls bore plebeian names suggesting distorted chronology. Lucius Junius Brutus may have come from a plebeian family despite tradition claiming otherwise. Minimum age dropped to forty-two years under Sulla then changed to thirty-two during Empire. Emperors appointed themselves or protégés without regard for traditional age limits. The Senate eventually transferred elections to itself during Flavian or Antonine periods though people still ratified selections.
Roman years customarily named after serving consuls like regnal years in monarchies. Year 59 BC called consulship of Caesar and Bibulus since Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus held office. Caesar dominated so thoroughly that year it jokingly became consulship of Julius and Caesar. Date ranges shifted multiple times throughout history starting September 1st before changing to January 1st by 153 BC. From 222 BC to 153 BC consuls took office March 15th due to Second Celtiberian War. Latin used ablative absolute construction expressing dates as M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus. Inscriptions abbreviated consul as C N S L with N disappearing based on classical pronunciation /kõ: sul/. Additional consulships noted trailing Roman numerals twice consul thrice consul four times consul etcetera. Ab urbe condita dating from Rome's supposed foundation appeared less frequently than consular naming conventions.
After leaving office consuls assigned provinces to administer as governors through proconsular imperium. Provinces drawn by lot determined before term ended lasting one to five years typically. One consul appointed to Rome city while other went to Constantinople after Constantine I reforms. Emperor Theodosius I divided Empire in 379 allowing each half appointing one consul. Western Empire sometimes ignored Eastern consuls when emperors became puppets of generals like Stilicho. Consular celebrations involved chariot races costing considerable state money. Teenagers and children received titles including Varronianus Valentinianus Galates Olybrius Junior plus emperor offspring. Papacy bestowed rank occasionally offering title to Charles Martel in 719 though he refused it. Alfred the Great aged four or five became Roman consul around 853 AD. Similar dual-office systems survive today in San Marino maintaining historical continuity across centuries.
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Common questions
When was the Roman consul office established and what does the name mean?
The traditional founding of the Roman Republic and the consulship occurred in 509 BC. Ancient writers claimed the title came from the Latin verb consulere meaning to take counsel though the true origin likely lies in words suggesting get together or sit down together.
What powers did a Roman consul hold inside and outside Rome's walls?
Inside Rome's walls twelve lictors accompanied every public appearance carrying fasces bundles that contained an axe symbolizing military power known as imperium. Outside city limits consuls held full imperium allowing them to punish soldiers or allies freely while citizens could not be executed without trial within the pomerium boundary.
Who became the first plebeian consul and when did this change occur?
Lucius Sextius became the first plebeian consul in 366 BC following the Licinio-Sextian rogations that opened the office partially to non-patricians. Before this year only patricians could hold the office until about fifteen novi homines gained election including Cicero who won in 63 BC.
How were Roman years named after serving consuls and when did date ranges shift?
Roman years customarily named after serving consuls like regnal years in monarchies with examples such as the year 59 BC called consulship of Caesar and Bibulus. Date ranges shifted multiple times throughout history starting September 1st before changing to January 1st by 153 BC and from 222 BC to 153 BC consuls took office March 15th due to Second Celtiberian War.
When did the Western and Eastern consulships end and who was the final holder?
Western consulship ended in 534 with Decius Paulinus as final holder while Eastern consulship concluded in 541 under Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Emperor Leo the Wise finally eliminated the office in Novel 94 of his Basilika during the late ninth century making Greek titles hypatos and apo hypaton lowly honorary dignities by that time.
All sources
23 references cited across the entry
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