Rex Sacrorum
Ancient Roman religion featured a senatorial priesthood called the rex sacrorum, or king of the sacred things. Scholars debate whether this office originated during the Regal period before Rome became a Republic. Arnaldo Momigliano argued that the figure was created specifically during the formation of the Republic to replace the kings. Other historians suggest the title existed in earlier times as part of Italic and possibly Etruscan religious traditions. The office appears in Latin cities such as Lanuvium, Tusculum, and Velitrae alongside Rome itself. This historical uncertainty reflects the complex transition from monarchy to republican governance. The rex sacrorum fulfilled at least some sacral duties of kingship after the overthrow of the kings. Consuls assumed political power and military command while retaining some sacral functions. The debate continues over whether the priest was merely a decayed king or a new invention.
During the Roman Republic, the pontifex maximus chose the rex sacrorum from a list submitted by the College of Pontiffs. A strict requirement demanded he be born from parents married through the ritual of confarreatio. He himself had to enter into marriage using this same ancient form. Festus states that in the ranking of highest priests, the rex sacrorum held the highest prestige. This position ranked above the flamines maiores and even the pontifex maximus. Yet the holder remained more or less a powerless figurehead with no real political gain. Marriage was so fundamental that if his wife died, the rex had to resign immediately. Although scholars agree on this rule for the rex sacrorum, it is better documented for the Flamen Dialis. The office was not highly coveted among patricians due to its lack of political power. Some years passed without a rex sacrorum existing at all because no one wanted the role.
The rex sacrorum held a sacrifice on the Kalends of each month within the Regia. On the Nones, he announced the dates of festivals for the coming month. Specific ceremonial dates included sacrifices held on March 24 and May 24 in the Comitium. These duties suggest the priest functioned as the high priest of Janus. Monthly rituals required him to perform capite velato, meaning with his head covered. A ceremonial axe accompanied him during these head-covering sacrifices. The calendar dictated when specific actions occurred throughout the year. Festivals were announced publicly by the priest on designated days. The monthly cycle ensured regular interaction between the priesthood and the Roman state. Sacrifices to Janus formed a core part of his religious obligations. The consistency of these duties maintained the sacred rhythm of Roman public life.
Norma Goldman notes that the rex sacrorum wore an undecorated soft shoeboot known as calceus. He also donned a toga while performing his sacred duties. A ceremonial axe was carried during sacrifices performed with the head covered. This attire distinguished him from other priests like the pontiffs or augurs. The combination of clothing and tools symbolized his archaic religious authority. The soft shoes contrasted with the formal nature of his office. The axe served as a tool for ritual slaughter rather than warfare. His appearance reflected the ancient origins of the Italic religion he served. The visual elements reinforced the separation between political power and sacred duty. These items remained constant throughout his tenure in the Regia.
On the Kalends of every month, the regina presided at the sacrifice of a sow or female lamb to Juno. Emily Hemelrijk cites Macrobius regarding this specific ritual practice. She wore a headdress called the arculum made from pomegranate twigs tied with white woolen thread. Inscriptions record names like Sergia Paullina shortly before 112 AD and Manlia Fadilla around the 2nd or 3rd century AD. Her role contradicted notions that women's activities were restricted to the private sphere. Unlike Vestals, she acted as a complement to her male partner. These priesthoods were gender-balanced and shared duties within Roman religion. The highly public nature of these sacrifices highlighted her importance. Marriage through confarreatio was required for both partners. After the Lex Canuleia of 445 BC, plebeian women might have held the title.
Livy records that the rex sacrorum was not elected but inaugurated by a comitia calata assembly. He was barred from any political or military career unlike other priests. This restriction ensured the office remained purely religious in function. By the time of Antony's civil war, the office fell into total disuse. Augustus revived the position later during his reign. Mention of the office continued until it was probably abolished by Theodosius I. William Smith notes the lack of political gain caused some years without a holder. The decline reflected changing attitudes toward ancient royal titles in a republic. The final abolition marked the end of an institution dating back to early Rome. John Maddox Roberts wrote about this figure in historical detective fiction published in 1995.
Common questions
What is the rex sacrorum in ancient Roman religion?
The rex sacrorum was a senatorial priesthood known as the king of the sacred things. This office fulfilled at least some sacral duties of kingship after the overthrow of the kings during the transition to republican governance.
When did the rex sacrorum office originate and when was it abolished?
Scholars debate whether this office originated during the Regal period before Rome became a Republic or if Arnaldo Momigliano argued that the figure was created specifically during the formation of the Republic. The office continued until it was probably abolished by Theodosius I, with mention ending after Augustus revived the position following Antony's civil war.
How was the rex sacrorum chosen and what marriage requirements existed for the role?
During the Roman Republic, the pontifex maximus chose the rex sacrorum from a list submitted by the College of Pontiffs. A strict requirement demanded he be born from parents married through the ritual of confarreatio and enter into marriage using this same ancient form himself.
What specific rituals did the rex sacrorum perform on the Kalends and Nones of each month?
On the Kalends of every month, the rex sacrorum held a sacrifice within the Regia while performing capite velato meaning with his head covered. On the Nones, he announced the dates of festivals for the coming month to the public.
Who was the regina sacrorum and what attire did she wear during sacrifices in 112 AD?
The regina presided at the sacrifice of a sow or female lamb to Juno on the Kalends of every month alongside her male partner. She wore a headdress called the arculum made from pomegranate twigs tied with white woolen thread as recorded in inscriptions like those of Sergia Paullina shortly before 112 AD.
All sources
8 references cited across the entry
- 6bookA history of RomeLe Glay, Marcel. — Wiley-Blackwell — 2009