Prisoner of war
An engraving from the 13th century BC depicts Nubian prisoners at Abu Simbel in Egypt. This image captures one of the earliest recorded instances of captives held during armed conflict. For much of history, victors slaughtered or enslaved those they captured on the battlefield. Roman warfare outcomes varied between release, ransom, execution, and enslavement. Early Roman gladiators often came from these prisoner populations. They were categorized by ethnic roots as Samnites, Thracians, and Gauls. Captured soldiers sometimes fought with their own weapons in their particular style of combat. The Samnites became the prototype for Rome's professional gladiators. Their equipment was first used and later adopted for the arena. Two other categories took names from defeated tribes: the Galli and the Thraeces. Homer's Iliad describes Trojan and Greek soldiers offering rewards to opposing forces who had defeated them. Such offers were not always accepted. Typically, victors made little distinction between enemy combatants and civilians. Sometimes the purpose of a battle involved capturing women, a practice known as raptio. The Rape of the Sabines involved a large mass-abduction by the founders of Rome. Women typically had no rights and were held legally as chattels. In the fourth century AD, St Acacius of Amida ransomed Persian prisoners. He sold his church's precious gold and silver vessels to free them. These men were destined for slavery under appalling conditions before he intervened. For this act, he was later canonized. During Childeric's siege of Paris in 464, nun Geneviève pleaded for the welfare of prisoners. She met with a favorable response from the Frankish king. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after her urging. King Henry V's English army killed many French prisoners at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. A proclamation ordered every man to slay his prisoner upon pain of death. Some Frenchmen were stuck with daggers while others were brained with pollaxes. Few prisoners survived that day. Authorities in Christian Europe often considered the extermination of heretics desirable during religious wars. The Albigensian Crusade in Languedoc targeted Cathars in the 13th century. Papal legate Arnaud Amalric allegedly replied Kill them all when asked how to distinguish Catholics from Cathars following the capture of Béziers. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed by sending large sums of wealth commensurate with their social status. Feudal Japan had no custom of ransoming prisoners who expected summary execution instead.
The earliest recorded usage of the phrase prisoner of war dates back to 1610. European states began centralizing treatment between the 16th and late 18th centuries. Captured enemy soldiers shifted from private property to state property. The act of surrender became regulated so officers negotiated the surrender of whole units. Soldiers whose fighting styles did not conform to regular battle lines were often denied POW status. Cossacks and Croats frequently fell into this category. The cartel system emerged to regulate how warring states exchanged prisoners. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia established rules for releasing prisoners without ransom after hostilities ended. A right of parole developed where captured officers surrendered swords for privileges. If they swore not to escape, they gained better accommodations or freedom. If they ceased hostilities against captors, they could be repatriated but barred from military service. The earliest known purpose-built camp opened at Norman Cross in Huntingdonshire, England in 1797. It housed prisoners from French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars. Average population reached about 5,500 men with peaks of 6,272 on the 10th of April 1810. Senior officers received parole outside the prison mainly in Peterborough. They enjoyed courtesy of rank within English society. The Brussels Conference of 1874 marked early efforts to prevent inhumane treatment. Nations agreed it was necessary to stop cruel practices despite no immediate ratification. Chapter II of Annex to 1907 Hague Convention IV covered prisoner treatment in detail. These provisions expanded further in 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War. Article 4 of Third Geneva Convention protects captured personnel until release or repatriation. Under 1949 Geneva Conventions, POWs became protected persons whose deprivation of rights constituted war crimes. Article 17 states prisoners can only give name, date of birth, rank, and service number. International Committee of Red Cross maintains family contact through letters and cards. Nations vary in dedication to following these laws historically. Treatment has varied greatly across different conflicts and eras.
At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were executed after selection by German forces. Historian Niall Ferguson tabulated total death rates for World War II POWs showing stark disparities. Chinese prisoners held by Japan faced over 60 percent mortality while British held by Germans saw just 3.5 percent deaths. Empire of Japan signed but never ratified the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War. A directive ratified on the 5th of August 1937 by Emperor Hirohito removed Hague constraints on Chinese prisoners. Subjects included murder, torture, beatings, extrajudicial punishment, slavery, medical experiments, starvation rations, poor treatment, and cannibalism. The Burma-Thailand Death Railway represented notorious forced labor construction. After the 20th of March 1943, Imperial Navy ordered killing of sea-captured prisoners. Italian soldiers taken as POWs by Japanese armed forces faced same conditions as others. Tokyo Tribunal found Japan captured 350,000 POWs with 131,134 from Western nations. Of those 131,134, 35,756 died during detention creating 27.1 percent death rate. This was seven times higher than Western POWs under Germans and Italians. Chinese prisoner death rates were much higher still. Only 56 Chinese prisoners out of thousands survived to be released after surrender. Twenty-seven thousand four hundred sixty-five US Army POWs in Pacific Theater had 40.4 percent mortality. No direct access existed for International Red Cross to camps. Escapes among European descent prisoners proved almost impossible due to hiding difficulties. Allied attacks made transport ships accidental targets known as hell ships. One in three Pacific War deaths occurred on water by friendly fire. Approximately 21,000 Allied POWs died at sea according to Donald L. Miller. Artists like Jack Bridger Chalker recorded camp life risking their own safety. Human hair became brushes while plant juices served as paint. Female detainees at Changi Prison recorded ordeals through quilt embroidery. German authorities justified Soviet policy claiming USSR did not sign Geneva Convention. Between June 1941 and January 1942 Nazis killed estimated 2.8 million Soviet prisoners viewed as subhuman. Mainly by starvation within less than eight months before decimation stopped. Axis powers took about 5.7 million Soviet prisoners between 1941 and 1945. About one million released during war with status changes but remaining under German authority. Little over 500,000 escaped or liberated by Red Army. Some 930,000 found alive after war ended. Remaining 3.3 million died during captivity representing 57.5 percent total captured. Between Operation Barbarossa launch summer 1941 and following spring 2.8 million of 3.2 million taken died. Russian military historian General Grigoriy Krivosheyev states Axis took 4.6 million Soviets. Of those 1.8 million found alive in camps after war plus 318,770 drafted into Soviet forces again. Eight thousand three hundred forty-eight Western Allied prisoners died in German camps 1939-45 representing 3.5 percent of 232,000 total. Romanian POWs faced similar fates with 91,060 captured between 1941 and 1944. Until August 1944, 5,221 died mainly to disease during winter months. Conditions improved 1942 when Marshal Ion Antonescu ordered permanent control over accommodation care feeding use. Prisoners fed like Romanian troops receiving allocated 30 lei per soldier daily. Main workplaces included agriculture industrial enterprises forestry civil works service of camps. Postcards provided correspondence though most unused due fear reprisals from Soviet authorities upon learning imprisonment status. Executions by firing squad remained few while escapees caught without sabotage received court-martial sentences ranging three to six months or years.
During Korean War North Koreans developed reputation for torturing severely mistreating prisoners housed in three camps based on potential usefulness. Peace camps reform camps existed for those sympathetic cause possessing valuable skills useful to army. Indoctrination sometimes conscripted enemy soldiers into North Korean military ranks. Regular prisoners usually tortured treated very poorly compared to peace camp counterparts. 1952 Inter-Camp POW Olympics held November 15-27 in Pyuktong North Korea. Chinese hoped gain worldwide publicity while some refused participate. Some 500 POWs eleven nationalities took part competing football baseball softball basketball volleyball track field soccer gymnastics boxing. Prisoners had own photographers announcers reporters publishing newspaper called Olympic Roundup after each day competition. American Dream book details life African American Soldier spending twelve years Communist China. Soviet Union captured 3.5 million Axis servicemen excluding Japanese over one million died. Specific example involves German troops Battle of Stalingrad where Soviets captured 91,000 completely exhausted starving sick. Only 5,000 survived captivity lasting many years as forced labor. Last German POW Erich Hartmann highest-scoring fighter ace declared guilty war crimes without due process released 1955 two years Stalin died. Hundreds thousands Polish soldiers became prisoners following Soviet invasion Poland 1939. Thousands executed including over 20,000 military personnel civilians perished Katyn massacre. Out of Anders' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union United Kingdom only 310 volunteered return Poland 1947. Of 230,000 Polish prisoners taken by Soviet army only 82,000 survived. Five hundred sixty thousand to seven hundred sixty thousand Japanese prisoners captured Soviet Union Manchuria Korea South Sakhalin Kuril Islands sent work forced labor Soviet Union Mongolia. Estimated 60,000 to 347,000 died captivity according to BBC News the 7th of March 1998 report. Stories circulated Cold War claiming 23,000 Americans held German camps seized Soviets never repatriated. Careful scholarly studies demonstrated myth based misinterpretation telegram about Soviet prisoners Italy. North Vietnamese Viet Cong captors released American POWs February 1973 after long imprisonment periods. Yugoslav POWs documented Kosovo War 1999 showing continued mistreatment patterns across decades.
To entitled POW status captured persons must lawful combatants entitled combatant's privilege providing immunity punishment lawful acts war killing enemy combatants. Under Third Geneva Convention combatant part chain command wear fixed distinctive marking visible distance bear arms openly conduct military operations laws customs war. Convention recognizes groups inhabitants non-occupied territory spontaneously take arms resist invading forces without time form regular armed units. Additional Protocol I waives requirement distinctive marking. Francs-tireurs militias insurgents terrorists saboteurs mercenaries spies generally do not qualify fulfilling criteria Additional Protocol I therefore unlawful combatants. Captured soldiers lacking POW status still protected civilians under Fourth Geneva Convention. Criteria applied primarily international armed conflicts application non-international civil wars guided Additional Protocol II. Insurgents often treated traitors terrorists criminals government forces sometimes executed spot tortured. Guerrillas irregular combatants cannot expect benefits civilian military status simultaneously. Prisoners must treated humanely respect persons honor able inform next kin International Committee Red Cross capture. Allowed communicate regularly relatives receive packages given adequate food clothing housing medical attention paid work done forced dangerous unhealthy degrading work released quickly conflicts end. Not compelled give information except name age rank service number. Wounded sick battlefield prisoner receives help from International Committee Red Cross. Country responsible breaches accountable punished accordingly example Nuremberg Tokyo Trials. German Japanese commanders prosecuted preparing initiating aggression murder ill treatment deportation individuals genocide during World War II. Most executed sentenced life prison crimes. United States Military Code Conduct promulgated 1955 Executive Order 10631 President Dwight D Eisenhower serve moral code members taken prisoner. Created response breakdown leadership organization specifically U.S. forces POWs Korean War. Chain command remains effect highest ranking eligible regardless branch commanding requires support leadership. Requires resist giving information enemy beyond identifying name rank serial number receiving special favors parole otherwise providing aid comfort. Since Vietnam War official term Enemy Prisoner War EPW introduced distinguish enemy American captives. January 2008 directive replaced designation Prisoner War Missing-Captured reasoning since international legal recognized status people no need individual country follow suit. Change remains relatively unknown experts field Prisoner War widely used Pentagon having POW/Missing Personnel Office awards Prisoner War Medal.
Common questions
When was the earliest recorded usage of the phrase prisoner of war?
The earliest recorded usage of the phrase prisoner of war dates back to 1610. European states began centralizing treatment between the 16th and late 18th centuries.
What happened to prisoners at Norman Cross in Huntingdonshire England in 1797?
The earliest known purpose-built camp opened at Norman Cross in Huntingdonshire, England in 1797. It housed prisoners from French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars with an average population reaching about 5,500 men.
How many Soviet prisoners died during World War II captivity under German authority?
Axis powers took about 5.7 million Soviet prisoners between 1941 and 1945. Remaining 3.3 million died during captivity representing 57.5 percent total captured.
Why did Japanese forces not follow the Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War?
Empire of Japan signed but never ratified the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War. A directive ratified on the 5th of August 1937 by Emperor Hirohito removed Hague constraints on Chinese prisoners.
When were American POWs released by North Vietnamese Viet Cong captors?
North Vietnamese Viet Cong captors released American POWs February 1973 after long imprisonment periods. This event marked a significant conclusion to prisoner exchanges following the Vietnam War.