Polytheism
The word polytheism comes from the Greek roots poly meaning many and theos meaning god. A Jewish writer named Philo of Alexandria coined this term in antiquity to argue against Greek religious practices. He used it as a label for those who believed in more than one deity. This definition creates immediate tension with monotheism, which insists on a single transcendent god. Scholars note that counting gods is not always easy. Some religions appear to worship multiple figures while actually viewing them as manifestations of a singular divinity. Chinese folk religions often present this exact puzzle to researchers today.
Polytheistic belief usually assembles into a pantheon of gods and goddesses. These groups include their own religious sects and rituals. Within the broader category of theism, polytheism stands in contrast to monotheism. It also differs from henotheism and monolatry. Henotheism describes worshipping a single supreme god without ruling out other deities. Monolatry involves specializing in the worship of one particular deity at certain times. Polytheists do not always worship all gods equally. They may concentrate only on specific groups determined by occupation or family tradition.
Historical records trace the development of ancient pantheons through Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Mesopotamia. The Sumerian gods form one of the earliest known systems. Egyptian religion documented its deities from prehistory through the classical era. Ancient Greek religion featured the Twelve Olympians: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia. Hades often remained excluded because he dwelt in the underworld.
Pantheons tended to grow over time as empires extended over larger territories. Deities first worshipped as patrons of cities came together when conquest occurred. The Greek Titanomachia illustrates how subordination could happen during these expansions. Cultural exchange led to the same deity being revered under different names across regions. Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans shared many figures while maintaining distinct local epithets. Osiris traveled from ancient Egypt to become worshipped in ancient Greece. Roman religion formed much of its structure after tempering Etruscan cult beliefs. Norse mythology included the Äsir and Vanir tribes who engaged in their own war.
Modern polytheistic practices divide sharply between soft polytheism and hard polytheism. Soft polytheism treats different gods as psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. It views them as one essential god interpreted through various cultural lenses. Odin, Zeus, and Indra might represent the same divine entity for a soft polytheist. This approach allows gods to be interchangeable across cultures. English occultist Dion Fortune popularized this view in her novel The Sea Priestess. She wrote that all gods are one god and all goddesses are one goddess.
Hard polytheism insists that gods are distinct separate real divine beings. These believers reject the idea that all gods form one essential god. They may also deny the existence of deities outside their own pantheon entirely. The distinction matters because it shapes how practitioners interact with their faith. Soft polytheists often find common ground across traditions. Hard polytheists maintain strict boundaries between specific divine figures. Both approaches coexist within modern pagan communities today.
The majority of folk religions exist in the Asia-Pacific region according to recent surveys. These systems differ from traditional ethnic religions but share many characteristics. Animistic beliefs remain closely tied to most folk religious practices. Bulul statues serve as avatars of rice deities in the Anitist beliefs of the Ifugao people in the Philippines. Serer religion dates back to the Neolithic Era or possibly earlier. Ancient ancestors represented their Pangool on the Tassili n'Ajjer plateau. Roog serves as the supreme creator deity in Serer belief while Kellog, Day Otis, and Smith documented these practices.
Hinduism presents a complex case for scholars studying global traditions. Some Hindus consider themselves pantheists, panentheists, henotheists, polymorphists, monotheists, or monists simultaneously. Vedanta offers a combination of pantheism and polytheism by holding that Brahman represents the sole ultimate reality. Worshipping innumerable deities allows unity with this Supreme Absolute Truth. Ram Swarup pointed to the Rig Veda as evidence of specifically polytheistic origins. The hymn states gods came after creation itself began. Shinto worship of kami often syncretizes with Buddhism in Japan. Santería and various Traditional African religions continue to practice polytheistic forms today.
Gerald Gardner founded Wicca as a duotheistic faith allowing for polytheism in the twentieth century. His work helped revive ancient polytheistic practices across Europe. English occultist Dion Fortune became a major popularizer of soft polytheism through her writings. Reconstructionist movements apply history, archaeology, and language study to revive fragmented ancient religions. Norse paganism, Roman religion, and Celtic traditions receive scholarly attention from these groups. They consider their practice not merely inspired but as direct continuations of ancestral ways.
Hellenism centers primarily around polytheistic and animistic worship throughout the Hellenistic Era. It extended beyond mainland Greece to islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor. Magna Graecia including Sicily and southern Italy hosted scattered Greek colonies like Massalia. These communities maintained distinct theological schools such as Epicureanism during that period. Contemporary pagan religious movements remain diverse without any single set of beliefs shared by all members. No formal sacred texts exist for most folk religions yet they overlap frequently with other systems. Followers do not problematize following practices from multiple religions simultaneously.
Jean Bodin revived the term polytheism in French during 1580. Samuel Purchas used it in English shortly after in 1614. Non-Christians were historically called Gentiles or pagans when Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. The pejorative label idolaters described worshippers of false gods. Sunni Muslim extremist groups like Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant use polytheist as a derogatory reference against Shiite Muslims today. Professor Paul Vitz viewed the United States as a most polytheistic nation based on his opposition to Selfism.
Protestant thinkers employed the term as an anti-papist condemnation of Saint veneration. Polydeism emerged later as a portmanteau referencing many gods who created pieces of the universe then ceased intervention. C.D. Broad projected this concept in his 1925 article The Validity of Belief in a Personal God. Sociologist Susan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book Priestess Mother Sacred Sister. She intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems asserting spirit influence. Creighton University Philosophy professor William O. Stephens taught this modern philosophical concept extensively.
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Common questions
Who coined the term polytheism and when was it first used?
Philo of Alexandria, a Jewish writer from antiquity, coined the term polytheism to argue against Greek religious practices. Jean Bodin revived the term in French during 1580, and Samuel Purchas used it in English shortly after in 1614.
What is the difference between soft polytheism and hard polytheism?
Soft polytheism treats different gods as psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces that represent one essential god. Hard polytheism insists that gods are distinct separate real divine beings who reject the idea that all gods form one entity.
Which ancient pantheons are documented in historical records?
Historical records trace ancient pantheons through Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Mesopotamia with Sumerian gods forming one of the earliest known systems. Ancient Greek religion featured the Twelve Olympians including Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia.
How do modern folk religions practice polytheistic beliefs today?
The majority of folk religions exist in the Asia-Pacific region where animistic beliefs remain closely tied to most practices. Bulul statues serve as avatars of rice deities in the Anitist beliefs of the Ifugao people in the Philippines while Serer religion dates back to the Neolithic Era.
Why did Protestant thinkers use the term polytheism historically?
Protestant thinkers employed the term as an anti-papist condemnation of Saint veneration during the spread of Christianity throughout Europe. Non-Christians were historically called Gentiles or pagans when Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.