Political party
The Indian National Congress coordinates its members to collectively achieve and use political power. A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in elections and participate in governance. In a narrow definition, a political party can be thought of as just the group of candidates who run for office under a party label. In a broader definition, political parties are the entire apparatus that supports the election of a group of candidates. This includes voters and volunteers who identify with a particular political party. It also includes the official party organizations that support the election of that party's candidates. Legislators in the government who are affiliated with the party complete this broad picture. Governments may specify requirements for an organization to legally qualify as a political party. Political parties are distinguished from other political groups or clubs because they focus on electing candidates. Parliamentary groups are groups of political parties. Political factions are subgroups within a political party. Advocacy groups are focused on advancing a policy agenda. Parties have larger membership and greater stability over time than many other groups.
Plato mentions the political factions of Classical Athens in the Republic. Aristotle discusses the tendency of different types of government to produce factions in the Politics. The Nika riots between two chariot racing factions at the Hippodrome of Constantinople were ancient disputes that were factional. The late Roman Republic had Populares and Optimates factions. The Dutch Republic had Orangists and Staatsgezinde factions. Modern political parties emerged around the end of the 18th century. They first appeared in Europe and the United States of America. The United Kingdom's Conservative Party is frequently called the world's oldest continuous political party. The Democratic Party of the United States is also frequently called the world's oldest continuous political party. Some scholars argue that the first modern political parties developed in early modern Britain in the 17th century. The Whig faction organized itself around support for Protestant constitutional monarchy as opposed to absolute rule. The conservative Tory faction supported a strong monarchy. These two groups structured disputes in the politics of the United Kingdom throughout the 18th century. The Rockingham Whigs retained a coherent party label even while out of power. At the end of the 19th century, Sweden developed what has been called the world's first party system.
A National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party shows where policies may be set and changes made to party leadership. Parties typically feature a single party leader, a group of party executives, and a community of party members. In both presidential democracies and parliamentary democracies, members frequently have substantial input into the selection of party leaders. They vote on party leadership at a party conference. The number of people involved in choosing party leaders varies widely across parties and across countries. On one extreme, party leaders might be selected from the entire electorate. On the opposite extreme, they might be selected by just one individual. Some autocratic parties like the Chinese Communist Party have rigid methods for selecting the next party leader. These involve selection by other party members. A small number of single-party states have hereditary succession. Party leadership is inherited by the child of an outgoing party leader. Autocratic parties use more restrictive selection methods to avoid major shifts in the regime as a result of successions. A party executive commonly includes administrative positions like a party secretary and a party chair. These executive organizations may serve to constrain the party leader. It is common for political parties to conduct major leadership decisions during regular party conferences. Members of the National Woman's Party were active in 1918.
The German Social Democratic Party was formed to represent German workers. An elite party is a type of political party that was dominant in the nineteenth century before the introduction of universal suffrage. Maurice Duverger first distinguished between elite and mass parties. Elite parties are characterized by minimal and loose organization. They are financed by fewer larger monetary contributions typically originating outside the party. The earliest political parties such as the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists are classified as elite parties. A mass party developed around cleavages in society and mobilized ordinary citizens or masses in the political process. In Europe, the introduction of universal suffrage resulted in the creation of worker's parties. Mass parties represented large groups of citizens who had not previously been represented in political processes. Mass parties prioritize the mobilization of voters and are more centralized than elite parties. Catch-all parties developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of changes within mass parties. Otto Kirchheimer developed the term catch-all party. Christian Democratic parties organized around religion shifted into broader centre-right parties. Cartel parties emerged post-1970s and are characterized by heavy state financing. Richard Katz and Peter Mair wrote that political parties have turned into semi-state agencies. Niche parties developed on the basis of new cleavages and issues like immigration and the environment. Green parties and extreme nationalist parties like the National Rally in France are examples.
The Communist Party of Cuba is the only permitted political party in Cuba. It is the only party that can hold seats in the legislature. The Chinese Communist Party plays substantial roles in civil society beyond direct political governance. In North Korea, laws ensure that the Workers' Party of Korea retains control even though more than one party is officially permitted to exist. One current example of a two-party system is the United States. The national government has for much of the country's history exclusively been controlled by either the Democratic Party or the Republican Party. Colombia, Uruguay, Malta, and Ghana have had long periods of two-party dominance. Maurice Duverger observed in the 1950s that single-member district single-vote plurality-rule elections tend to produce two-party systems. This phenomenon came to be known as Duverger's law. Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties have a realistic chance of holding power. India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Brazil have had long periods of multi-party competition. Recent history of Israel, Italy, and Finland includes governing coalitions with highly ideologically diverse parties unable to make policy progress. Some multi-party systems may have two parties noticeably more competitive than others. These are called two-party-plus systems.
Contemporary elections in the largest democracies typically cost billions or tens of billions of dollars. Common sources of party funding include dues-paying party members, advocacy groups, lobbying organizations, corporations, trade unions, and candidates who self-fund activities. Nearly all of the 180 countries examined by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance have some form of public funding for political parties. About a third have regular payments of government funds beyond campaign reimbursements. Public financing of political parties may decrease parties' pursuit of funds through corrupt methods. Parties often spend money to train activists, recruit volunteers, create advertisements, conduct research, and promote their policy agenda. Many political parties engage in clientelism where they distribute material rewards to people in exchange for political support. In many countries this is illegal though it may be widespread in practice. Some parties engage directly in vote buying. Fundraising and expenditures by political parties are regulated by governments. Two main ways regulations affect parties are intervening in income sources and mandating transparency about funding. People who are not citizens of a country may not be allowed to make contributions to that country's political parties. Governments cap the total amount of money spent by each party in an election. Transparency laws require disclosures available to the public as a safeguard against potential corruption.
Common questions
What is the Indian National Congress and how does it coordinate political power?
The Indian National Congress coordinates its members to collectively achieve and use political power. It functions as an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in elections and participate in governance.
When did modern political parties first emerge in Europe and the United States of America?
Modern political parties emerged around the end of the 18th century. They first appeared in Europe and the United States of America during this period.
Which party is frequently called the world's oldest continuous political party in the United Kingdom or the United States of America?
The United Kingdom's Conservative Party is frequently called the world's oldest continuous political party. The Democratic Party of the United States is also frequently called the world's oldest continuous political party.
How do elite parties differ from mass parties in terms of organization and funding sources?
Elite parties are characterized by minimal and loose organization and are financed by fewer larger monetary contributions typically originating outside the party. Mass parties prioritize the mobilization of voters and are more centralized than elite parties.
What is Duverger's law regarding two-party systems and when was it observed by Maurice Duverger?
Maurice Duverger observed in the 1950s that single-member district single-vote plurality-rule elections tend to produce two-party systems. This phenomenon came to be known as Duverger's law.