Persian art: the story on HearLore

Persian art

The first evidence of a painted-pottery civilization in the region now known as Iran dates to approximately 5000 BCE, emerging in the city of Susa. This settlement, firmly within the cultural sphere of the Sumerian Uruk period, was not merely a trading post but a functioning colony that imitated the entire state apparatus of its Mesopotamian neighbors. Archaeologists have uncovered nearly two thousand ceramic vessels in the cemetery near the base of a monumental temple platform, where the inhabitants had placed offerings in a thousand or more graves. These vessels, including drinking goblets, serving dishes, and small jars, were carefully made by hand, often freehand, with asymmetry and irregular lines that speak to the artisan's direct touch rather than the use of a slow wheel. The recurrence of these specific shapes implies a complex belief system where three types of food were considered necessary for life in the afterworld, just as they were for the living. This early pottery tradition, known as Susa I style, was a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran, setting a precedent for the region's enduring focus on material culture. Centuries later, the artistic focus shifted from the clay bowl to the living rock itself. The earliest rock reliefs of Iran, dating to circa 2300 BC, were carved by the mountain kingdom of Lullubi in what is now Kermanshah province. The most famous of these, the Anubanini rock relief, stands as a testament to a tradition that would influence the later Achaemenid Behistun reliefs by a millennium and a half. These early carvings were not merely decorative; they were political statements carved high beside roads and near water sources to glorify the king and proclaim control over the territory. While the Lullubi reliefs were the precursors, the Elamite art that followed shared many characteristics with neighboring Mesopotamian art, though often less sophisticated. It included cylinder seals, small figures of worshippers and gods, and shallow reliefs, alongside a small number of very fine gold vessels with relief figures. This transition from the portable clay to the monumental stone established a dual tradition in Persian art: the intimate, handcrafted object and the grand, public declaration of power.

The Empire Of Stone And Steel

The Achaemenid Empire, which ruled from 550 BC to 330 BC, synthesized the artistic traditions of its vast empire into a new, unique Persian style. While the Persians took artists and techniques from all corners of their domain, they did not simply combine them; they created a synthesis that became the standard for court art. The most striking survivals of this era are the monumental sculptures of Persepolis, including the double animal-headed column capitals and the frieze reliefs that adorned the palaces. A particularly significant example is the restored colossal limestone bull head, which stands as a symbol of the empire's strength. The rhyton, a horn-shaped drinking vessel ending in an animal shape, became the most common type of large metalwork to survive, with fine examples found in New York today. Small pieces of gold jewelry, often featuring animals, were sewn to the clothing of the elite, and gold torcs have survived to this day. The rock reliefs of the Achaemenid and subsequent Sasanian periods serve as the historical record of Persian kingship. At Naqsh-e Rostam, the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty, four large tombs are cut high into the cliff face. These tombs feature facades with large panels showing the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute. The third tomb from the left, identified by an inscription, belongs to Darius I the Great, who reigned from 522 to 486 BC. The other three are believed to be those of Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, while a fifth unfinished one may belong to Darius III, the last of the Achaemenid dynasts. These tombs were looted following the conquest of the empire by Alexander the Great, yet the reliefs below them tell a different story of continuity. The Sassanian kings, who ruled from the 3rd to the 7th centuries AD, deliberately linked themselves to the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire by placing their own reliefs at the same sites. The most famous of these shows the Sassanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission. This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, where Valerian became the only Roman Emperor captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for Rome that the Persians immortalized in stone.

When did the first painted-pottery civilization emerge in the region now known as Iran?

The first evidence of a painted-pottery civilization in the region now known as Iran dates to approximately 5000 BCE. This civilization emerged in the city of Susa and was firmly within the cultural sphere of the Sumerian Uruk period.

Who created the earliest rock reliefs of Iran and where are they located?

The earliest rock reliefs of Iran, dating to circa 2300 BC, were carved by the mountain kingdom of Lullubi. These carvings are located in what is now Kermanshah province and include the famous Anubanini rock relief.

Which Persian king commissioned the third tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and when did he reign?

The third tomb from the left at Naqsh-e Rostam belongs to Darius I the Great. He reigned from 522 to 486 BC and his tomb is identified by an inscription.

What is the Master of Animals motif found in Luristan bronzes?

The Master of Animals is a common motif in Luristan bronzes that shows a human positioned between and grasping two confronted animals. This theme is typically highly stylized and appears on small cast objects from between 1000 and 650 BC.

When did Shah Tahmasp I issue the Edict of Sincere Repentance that disrupted Persian art?

Shah Tahmasp I issued the Edict of Sincere Repentance in 1556. This decree attempted to outlaw miniature painting, music, and other arts, causing many painters to flee the court.

Which Qajar shah is most famous for the portraits painted by Mihr Ali?

Fath-Ali Shah Qajar is the ruler most famous for the portraits painted by Mihr Ali. These paintings exemplify the Romantic image of the great Oriental Ruler and were created during his rule as the second Qajar shah.

The Nomadic Bronze And The Sogdian Silk

While the great empires built stone palaces, a different artistic tradition thrived among the nomadic and transhumant peoples of the Iron Age. The Luristan bronzes, found in large numbers in Lorestān Province and Kermanshah, are small cast objects decorated with bronze sculptures that date to between 1000 and 650 BC. These objects, which include ornaments, tools, weapons, and horse-fittings, were designed to be light and portable for a people who needed all their possessions to be mobile. The bronzes tend to be flat and use openwork, similar to the related metalwork of Scythian art. A common motif is the Master of Animals, showing a human positioned between and grasping two confronted animals, a theme that is typically highly stylized. The Ziwiye hoard from Kurdistan province, dating to about 700 BC, represents a collection of objects, mostly in metal, that show the art of the Persian cities of the period. Delicate metalwork from Iron Age II times has been found at Hasanlu and still earlier at Marlik, proving that the region was a hub of sophisticated craftsmanship long before the rise of the great empires. As the empires rose and fell, the Sogdians, an Iranian people who lived mostly in Sogdia in Central Asia, developed a distinct artistic identity that bridged the gap between East and West. The Sogdians were especially talented in metalworking, and their work in this field inspired the Chinese, who were among their patrons. Sogdian metalwork is less massive than Sasanian vessels, with shapes and techniques that differ significantly, and designs that are more dynamic. The Sogdians also excelled in painting and wood carving, decorating their architecturally complex abodes with remarkable murals. These paintings, such as the Afrasiab and Penjikent murals, are bright, vigorous, and of remarkable beauty, telling stories of banqueting, hunting, and entertainment. The Sogdians were storytellers who loved to recount stories, and their paintings are narrative in nature. They sought to portray both the supernatural and natural worlds, extending this desire into portraying their own world. Although they did not represent their mercantile activities, which were a major source of their wealth, they chose to show their enjoyment of it, such as the scenes of banqueting at Panjikent. This art form, which reflects the religious affiliations of the Sogdians, allows modern observers to experience the vibrancy of Sogdian life and imagination.

The Book And The Carpet

The art of the book became the essential driving force of Persian art under the Safavid dynasty, which ruled from 1501 to 1722. The ketab khaneh, the royal library-workshop, provided most of the sources of motifs for objects such as carpets, ceramics, and metalwork. The Safavid period saw a far more unitary development of style than in any other period, with the same style diffused from the court appearing in carpets, architectural tiles, ceramics, and manuscript illumination. Chinese imitation drawings emerged in 15th-century Persian art, containing an abundance of motifs common to Chinese art like dragons, simurgh, cloud-bands, gnarled tree trunks, and lotus and peony flowers. This Chinoiserie was popular during the period, and themes that had become standard in Persian art by the 16th and 17th centuries included hunting scenes, landscapes featuring animals and horsemen battling lions, and literary scenes depicting animal fables and dragons. Carpets, too, reached a high level of sophistication during this era. The carpets woven in the Safavid court manufactories of Isfahan during the sixteenth century are famous for their elaborate colors and artistic design, and are treasured in museums and private collections all over the world today. The Ardabil Carpet, now in London and Los Angeles, and the Coronation Carpet, now in Copenhagen, are exceptional individual examples. The art and craft of carpet weaving has gone through periods of decline during times of political unrest, or under the influence of commercial demands, particularly suffering from the introduction of synthetic dyes during the second half of the nineteenth century. However, modern production is characterized by the revival of traditional dyeing with natural dyes and the reintroduction of traditional tribal patterns. The Safavid court produced carpets that were not merely utilitarian but were objects of high artistic and utilitarian value, with patterns and designs that set an artistic tradition for court manufactories which was kept alive during the entire duration of the Persian Empire up to the last royal dynasty of Iran.

The Edict And The Dispersal

The reign of Shah Tahmasp I, who ruled from 1524 to 1576, marked a dramatic turning point in the history of Persian art. For the early years of his reign, he was a generous funder of the royal workshop, which produced several of the most magnificent Persian manuscripts. However, from the 1540s, he became increasingly troubled by religious scruples, and in 1556, he issued an Edict of Sincere Repentance attempting to outlaw miniature painting, music, and other arts. This decree greatly disrupted the arts, causing many painters to flee the court. Artists such as Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali moved to India to develop the Mughal miniature, having been headhunted by the Mughal Emperor Humayun when he was in exile in 1546. Others found work at the provincial courts of Tahmasp's relations. This dispersal of the royal workshop led to a shift in emphasis from large illustrated books for the court to the production of single sheets designed to be put into a muraqqa, or album. These albums allowed collectors with more modest budgets to acquire works by leading painters. By the end of the century, complicated narrative scenes with many figures were less popular, replaced by sheets with single figures, often only partially painted and with a garden background drawn rather than painted. The master of this style was Reza Abbasi, whose career largely coincided with the reign of Abbas I, his main employer. Although he painted figures of old men, his most common subjects were beautiful young men and, less often, women or pairs of lovers. This shift in style reflected the changing tastes of the court and the broader cultural landscape. The Safavid dynasty, under Shah Abbas I, who reigned from 1588 to 1629, continued to encourage new styles that spread all over their territories. The arts of the Safavid period show a far more unitary development than in any other period of Persian art, with the same style diffused from the court, appearing in carpets, architectural tiles, ceramics, and manuscript illumination. This unity of style, despite the political and religious upheavals, stands as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of Persian artistic traditions.

The Mirror Of The Shah

The Qajar era, which lasted from 1781 to 1925, witnessed a boom in artistic expression that was the fortunate side effect of the period of relative peace that accompanied the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar and his descendants. With his ascension, the bloody turmoil that had characterized the 18th century in Iran came to a close, making it possible for the peacetime arts to flourish again. European influence was strong, producing new genres like painted enamel decoration on metal, typically with flowers that clearly draw on French and other European styles. Lacquer on wood was used in a similar way, and painting adopted the European technique of oil painting. Large murals of scenes of revelry and historical scenes were produced as murals for palaces and coffee houses, and many portraits have an arched top showing they were intended to be inset into walls. Qajar art has a distinctive style of portraiture, with the most famous artworks being the portraits that were made of the various Persian Shahs. Each ruler, and many of their sons and other relatives, commissioned official portraits of themselves either for private use or public display. The most famous of these are the myriad portraits which were painted of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, who, with his narrow waist, long black bifurcated beard, and deepest eyes, has come to exemplify the Romantic image of the great Oriental Ruler. Many of these paintings were by the artist Mihr Ali. While the portraits were executed at various points throughout the life of the Shah, they adhere to a canon in which the distinctive features of the ruler are emphasized. It is only appropriate that this particular Shah be so immortalized in this style, as it was under his rule as the second Qajar shah that the style truly flourished. One reason for this was the stronger and stronger diplomatic ties that the Qajar rulers were nurturing with European powers. The impact of photography greatly increased the individuality of portraits in the later 19th century, as seen in the work of Kamal-ol-molk, who visited Europe in 1898 and introduced a more European style to Persian painting.