— Ch. 1 · Rising Public Anxiety And Fallout —
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
~9 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
The Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll in 1954 released a yield of 15 megatons, more than double the expected power. Radioactive particles spread over thousands of square miles, affecting inhabited areas like Rongelap Atoll and Utirik Atoll. Japanese fishermen aboard the Lucky Dragon ship received what was called "ashes of death" from the fallout. This event became the worst radiological incident in US history, sickening crew members and drawing global attention to the dangers of atmospheric testing. In the same year, Soviet tests sent radioactive particles over Japan, compounding international fears. By 1961, the Soviet Union detonated the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful human-made explosion ever recorded, though its lead tamper limited immediate fallout. Between 1951 and 1958, the United States conducted 166 atmospheric tests while the Soviet Union carried out 82. Only 22 underground tests occurred during that period, all performed by the US. The public began noticing strontium-90 levels rising in baby teeth through the Baby Tooth Survey, which used modern media advocacy techniques to communicate complex scientific issues. Support for a test ban grew from 20% in 1954 to 63% by 1957. Albert Schweitzer, a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, organized appeals endorsed by Pope Pius XII. Linus Pauling led an anti-test petition signed by more than 9,000 scientists across 43 countries, including the infirm and elderly Albert Einstein.
Early Diplomatic Efforts And Baruch Plan
In 1945, Britain and Canada called for international discussions on controlling atomic power before any cohesive US policy existed. Vannevar Bush, who oversaw the Manhattan Project, proposed creating an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. He unsuccessfully argued in 1952 that the US should pursue a test ban agreement with the Soviet Union before testing its first thermonuclear weapon. The Acheson-Lilienthal Report commissioned by President Harry S. Truman recommended establishing an International Atomic Development Authority. J. Robert Oppenheimer influenced the report's recommendation for an international body to control uranium and thorium production. Dwight D. Eisenhower supported Truman's nuclear control policy when he was Chief of Staff of the United States Army. The Baruch Plan presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission in June 1946 proposed that this authority would control all research and equipment involved in atomic energy production. The Soviet Union dismissed the plan as a US attempt to secure nuclear dominance. They demanded the US halt weapons production and release technical information about their program. Between 1947 and 1954, both nations discussed demands within the UN Commission for Conventional Disarmament. By 1954, both countries had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. The US approach reflected tension between controlling weapons and believing dominance was critical to security. Interest in preventing proliferation grew as Soviet capabilities increased. In May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commission's Committee of Five. This proposal closely reflected prior Anglo-French efforts but was rejected by the US without general control agreements.