Parenting
A father and a mother hold their infant child in a photograph that captures the visual ideal of family. The legal definition of parenting extends far beyond this biological image. Haim Abraham wrote about multiple parents in 2017 to argue that a family is what you make it. Governments and society often step into roles traditionally held by blood relatives. Orphaned or abandoned children receive care from non-parents who are not related by blood. Step-parents, grandmothers, aunts, uncles, and family friends all serve as caretakers. Legal guardians sometimes raise children when biological parents cannot. Adoption places children with new families while foster care offers temporary homes. These arrangements show that raising a child does not require a genetic link.
Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind proposed three main parenting styles in early child development during the late 1960s. Her work appeared in Genetic Psychology Monographs in 1967 and later in Developmental Psychology in 1971. Authoritative parenting combines medium level demands on the child with medium level responsiveness from the parents. This style relies on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Children raised under authoritative rules score higher in competence and mental health than those in other environments. Authoritarian parents place high demands on the child but offer little responsiveness. They enforce rigid obedience without explanation when rules are broken. In 1983, Diana Baumrind found that children raised in authoritarian-style homes were less cheerful and moodier. Permissive parenting values freedom and autonomy over structure. Parents rely primarily on reasoning rather than explicit rules or punishment. Alfie Kohn criticized this categorization in his 2005 book Unconditional Parenting. He argued it blurred differences between confused parents and deliberate democrats. An uninvolved style leaves children emotionally absent with no behavioral expectations. Research shows these children suffer in social competence and academic performance.
Indigenous American communities use storytelling to teach children important values and life lessons. These myths personify animals and objects to reaffirm the belief that everything possesses a soul. The Consejo serves as a narrative form of advice-giving within many Hispanic families. A parent tells a story about a similar situation instead of directly telling the child what to do. Navajo families focus heavily on respect for all things through nonverbal communication. Children initiate early morning runs under any weather conditions to become active community members. Mayan girls watch their mothers make tortillas for only a few minutes at a time due to sacred restrictions. They then practice movements on plastic pieces without receiving explicit verbal instruction. West African cultures spend more time talking to babies about other people rather than the baby itself. European Americans prize intellectual understanding while Italian parents value social and emotional competence. Dutch parents view asking questions as a negative behavior signifying a lack of independence. East Asian households prize order above all else which can lead to high levels of psychological control. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value innovation and call it ng/om when wielded responsibly. Swedish and Spanish cultures prioritize sociality and happiness over strict hierarchy.
Newborns require feedings every few hours which disrupt adult sleep cycles. Breastfeeding remains the recommended method by all major infant health organizations worldwide. Attachment develops immediately and forms the foundation of an infant's capacity to conduct relationships throughout life. Tantrums begin during the toddler stage between 12 and 36 months old. Daniel Schechter led research groups showing that parents with histories of maltreatment struggle with emotionally dysregulated behaviors in toddlers. Data from the US in 2014 states women spent one hour providing physical care to household children under age six. Men spent only 23 minutes providing similar physical care on average days. Adolescents face high risk where newfound freedoms open or close life opportunities drastically. The emotional center of the brain is fully developed but the rational frontal cortex has not matured fully yet. Parents often feel isolated and alone when parenting adolescents who increase time spent with peers. Berzonsky found that adolescents open and trusting of their parents were given more freedom. Parenting continues into middle and later adulthood as support may be needed well beyond age 18. Becoming a grandparent represents another milestone with many similarities to raising young children.
About 40% of all pregnancies are unplanned resulting in over 30 million babies born each year globally. A woman who is underweight due to poverty or illness is less likely to have a healthy pregnancy. Women who are obese face higher risks including gestational diabetes. Poor mothers may be overworked and unable to afford healthful foods with sufficient iron for the unborn child. Wealthy countries see some mothers overeat while spending too much time resting during pregnancy. Social class, wealth, culture, and income strongly impact what methods of child rearing parents use. Working-class families show authoritarian-style parenting more often than middle-class families do. Ethnic-racial socialization helps pass down cultural resources to support psychosocial wellness among children of color. Cultural socialization practices affect children similarly across developmental stages except preparation for bias which encourages older-aged children. Cross-sectional studies showed greater effect sizes because correlations are inflated in these kinds of research designs. Parental reports influence results so child reports tend to be more accurate regarding ethnic-racial socialization. The British Household Panel Survey suggests having up to two children increases happiness mostly for those who postponed childbearing. Having a third child does not increase happiness according to this data.
Group-based parent training programs prove effective at improving short-term psychosocial well-being for parents. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy works with both parents and children to teach skills for positive interaction. Parents Management Training focuses on children aged 3, 13 where parents serve as main trainees. Positive Parenting Program equips parents with information needed to increase confidence and self-sufficiency. The Incredible Years breaks into small-group-based training covering age infancy through age 12. Behavioral and Emotional Skills Training introduces techniques in one day rather than over several weeks. Jay Belsky developed a process model widely used to assess how parental well-being impacts early childhood parenting. Research shows that if parents' cognitions are more positive then a child can be raised more supportively. Children benefit when their parents communicate truthfully about events and maintain consistency in routines. Utilizing resources available helps build supportive social networks within communities. Taking an interest in educational needs leads to better behavioral patterns. Keeping open communication lines allows parents to understand what affects their child's development. The Arbinger Institute describes methods called The Parenting Pyramid starting with ways of being and ending with corrections.
Common questions
What is the legal definition of parenting according to Haim Abraham?
Haim Abraham wrote in 2017 that a family is what you make it and extends far beyond biological images. Governments and society often step into roles traditionally held by blood relatives to care for orphaned or abandoned children.
When did Diana Baumrind propose her three main parenting styles?
Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind proposed three main parenting styles during the late 1960s with work appearing in Genetic Psychology Monographs in 1967. Her research later appeared in Developmental Psychology in 1971.
How do Indigenous American communities teach children values through storytelling?
Indigenous American communities use storytelling to teach children important values and life lessons while personifying animals and objects. Navajo families focus heavily on respect for all things through nonverbal communication and early morning runs under any weather conditions.
Why do adolescents face high risk during their developmental stage?
Adolescents face high risk where newfound freedoms open or close life opportunities drastically because the emotional center of the brain is fully developed but the rational frontal cortex has not matured fully yet. Parents often feel isolated when parenting adolescents who increase time spent with peers.
What percentage of pregnancies are unplanned globally according to recent data?
About 40% of all pregnancies are unplanned resulting in over 30 million babies born each year globally. Social class, wealth, culture, and income strongly impact what methods of child rearing parents use.