Parent

• 1. Defining Parental Roles

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  A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their genes. This definition creates a clear line between those who provide DNA and those who nurture a child without that genetic link. Adoptive parents raise offspring but share no blood with them. Step-parents enter a family through remarriage, often called stepmothers or stepfathers in daily life. A female can become a parent through surrogacy, adding another layer to the traditional view of motherhood. Some children have more than two biological parents due to assisted reproductive procedures altering genetic material. Orphans without adoptive parents may be raised by grandparents or other family members instead. The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved varies from culture to culture. One that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit child neglect. One that is too involved is sometimes described as overprotective, cosseting, nosey, or intrusive.

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• 2. Evolutionary Conflict Theory

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  Robert Trivers proposed his theory regarding evolutionary conflicts of interest between parent and offspring fitness in 1974. An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, while one that hates their mother is a misomater. Parents tend to maximize the number of offspring they produce. Offspring can increase their own fitness by getting a greater share of parental investment. This competition often happens among siblings within the same brood. In some bird species, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of food brought by parents. That strong sibling will often kill the weaker sibling in an act known as siblicide. David Haig argued that human fetal genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother. The placenta secretes allocrine hormones that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin. This makes a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream. The placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes which counteract this effect.

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• 3. Genetic Testing Methods

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  A paternity test is conducted to prove whether a male is the biological father of another individual. Maternity tests are less common because it is usually obvious who the mother is during childbirth. Exceptions occur with pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation. Older methods included ABO blood group typing and analysis of various other proteins and enzymes. Human leukocyte antigens were also used before modern techniques became standard. Several congenital traits such as attached earlobes may serve as tentative indicators of parenthood. These traits are readily observable and inherited via autosomal-dominant genes. A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis known as genetic fingerprinting. Current techniques for paternity testing use polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing. It remains the primary tool for legal battles where maternity is challenged. It is also used when deceased persons need to be identified through family connection.

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• 4. Psychological Well-being Metrics

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  In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents according to sociological data. Happiness increases after the first child in women specifically. Having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth. The Sinatra family portrait from 1949 captures a moment of parental joy often cited in studies. Social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents. Children and adolescents with same-sex parents suffer no developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents. Family processes contribute to determining children's well-being rather than family structures per se. The quality of parenting matters more than the number or gender of parents. Major associations agree there is a well-established consensus in the field regarding these outcomes. Cultural definitions and roles make it challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted standard.

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• 5. Modern Family Structures

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  There are many variants such as adoption, shared parenting, stepfamilies, and LGBT parenting over which there has been controversy. A child has at least one biological father and at least one biological mother. Not every family is a traditional nuclear family. Guardians are typically used in three situations including guardianship for an incapacitated senior due to old age. They also handle cases involving minors and developmentally disabled adults. Most countries have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians. Parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death. Some jurisdictions allow a parent to exercise authority without a formal court appointment. That parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of their child. The social science literature indicates that family processes determine outcomes rather than structure itself. Professionals and major associations now agree on the lack of optimal gender combinations for raising children.

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