Parallel Lives

• 1. Origins And Composition

  ›

  Plutarch began writing the Parallel Lives at the start of the second century, likely around 100 AD. He was a Greek philosopher and priest serving Apollo at Delphi when he composed these biographies in Greek. The work emerged as his second major set of biographical writings after the Lives of Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius. Only two of those earlier imperial lives survive today: Galba and Otho. Plutarch stated clearly in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander that he wrote about lives not histories. His goal was ethical exploration rather than historical documentation. He wanted to show how character shaped destiny for famous men across time. Writing nearly three centuries after most subjects had died, Plutarch relied on manuscripts of uncertain accuracy. In his biography of Pericles, he admitted that finding truth through past records is extremely difficult. Time obscures facts, and even contemporary writers often twist events out of malice or flattery.

  13

• 2. Structural Pairings

  ›

  The surviving collection contains twenty-three pairs of biographies linking one Greek figure with one Roman counterpart. These pairings included Alexander the Great alongside Julius Caesar and Demosthenes paired with Cicero. Four singular lives remain outside this pairing system: Artaxerxes, Aratus, Galba, and Otho. Traces suggest another twelve single lives once existed but are now lost forever. Eighteen of the paired biographies conclude with a formal comparison section between the two figures. Most pairs place the Greek hero first followed by the Roman hero. Three exceptions reverse this order: Aemilius Paullus before Timoleon, Coriolanus before Alcibiades, and Sertorius before Eumenes. The arrangement follows the Lamprias Catalogue, a list supposedly compiled by Plutarch's son Lamprias. This structure allowed Plutarch to illuminate shared virtues or failings across cultures separated by time and geography.

  4910

• 3. Translation History

  ›

  The first printed edition appeared in Rome around 1470, translated from Greek into Latin. Additional translations emerged through the fifteenth century including an Italian version in 1482 and Spanish translation in 1491. A German translation arrived later in 1541. Massive popularity surged after Amyot published his French translation in 1559. Six authorized editions came out by Parisian publisher Vascosan by late 1579 while many more were pirated copies. Thomas North produced an English version in 1579 that followed Amyot's French text phrase for phrase. Shakespeare drew heavily on North's translation for plays like Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. A new English edition appeared in 1683 translated directly from Greek rather than via French intermediaries. John Dryden edited this version though he did not actually perform the translation work himself. Jacob Tonson published this edition which became known as Dryden's translation despite Dryden's limited role.

  7814

• 4. Moral Methodology

  ›

  Plutarch prioritized character analysis over strict historical accuracy to create moral lessons for readers. His depiction of Eumenes diverged significantly from any picture found in the historical literature he consulted. The author created artificial portraits designed specifically to serve as counterpoints to paired figures like Sertorius. Historical context often yielded to moral analysis when constructing these biographical anecdotes. Plutarch presented both positive and negative attributes within each life story. He described moral and psychological motivations behind actions rather than simply listing events. These figures functioned as moral actors prompting self-examination among his audience. Even when making judgments, Plutarch posed questions suggesting alternative thoughts for readers to follow. This approach encouraged acknowledgment of contradicting viewpoints while broadening moral perspectives across centuries.

  210

• 5. Cultural Reception

  ›

  Montaigne praised the 1559 French edition stating dunces would have been lost without this book raising them out of dirt. Beethoven wrote in 1801 that Plutarch showed him resignation during his progression into deafness. British General Gordon recommended the Lives as a handbook for young officers worth more than tactical manuals. Ralph Waldo Emerson called the work a bible for heroes. Scholars cite Antonius as one of the series masterpieces while Peter D'Epiro praised Alcibiades as characterization perfection. Philip A. Stadter identified Pompey and Caesar as greatest Roman figures in the collection. Carl Rollyson noted no biographer surpassed Plutarch in summing up life essence because he believed intensely in human souls. The text remains relevant today since nothing fundamentally changed in human nature over nineteen centuries.

  1517

• 6. Editorial Interpretations

  ›

  Translators manipulated Plutarch's original work to reflect their own ideologies and religious contexts throughout history. George Wyndham criticized incomplete republications from 1895 that lacked original depth despite gaining popularity. Rebecca Nesvet argued the 1683 translation incorporated messages of religious tolerance intentionally. Jacob Tonson and John Dryden republished versions confirming Plutarch's paganism demonstrated clearly. They showed adherence to faith outside expected norms should not disqualify rational individuals from political leadership. Translators deviated from original texts to incorporate personal ethics while claiming fidelity to source material. These editorial choices transformed how readers understood moral ideals across different eras and belief systems. The merging of biography with ethical commentary continues providing invaluable reflection on human nature today.

  813