Othello
William Shakespeare wrote The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice around 1603. This play draws its core plot from a novella by Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio titled Gli Hecatommithi. Cinthio's story features characters named only as the Moor, the Ensign, and Disdemona, lacking the specific names Shakespeare later assigned to them. Shakespeare adapted this narrative significantly, adding elements like the Turkish invasion of Cyprus which did not exist in the original text. Historical context also influenced the writing process. In 1600, a Moorish ambassador from Barbary visited London for half a year. His entourage caused a stir among Elizabethan citizens and likely reached Shakespeare's company at court performances. Leo Africanus, a Moor himself, wrote about his people in A Geographical Historie of Africa. He described them as credulous and prone to jealousy, traits that appear directly in the play's characterization. Shakespeare may have consulted Richard Knolles' The Generall Historie of the Turkes published in 1603. Other influences include Virgil's Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales provided additional thematic material through stories like The Miller's Tale. George Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Marlowe's Doctor Faustus also left their mark on the work.
Othello was never published during Shakespeare's lifetime. The first printed version appeared as a quarto edition in 1622. This text is abbreviated as Q by scholars. A second version emerged one year later within the First Folio collection, designated as F. These two editions contain significant differences that continue to spark scholarly debate today. The Folio includes approximately 160 lines absent from the Quarto. Some of these additions are extended passages such as Othello's Pontic Sea speech or Desdemona's Willow Song. The Quarto offers fuller stage directions than its Folio counterpart. It contains 63 oaths or profanities missing from the Folio. This suggests the Folio might derive from a manuscript edited to comply with the 1606 Act of Abuses. Over a thousand variations exist between the texts regarding wording, lineation, spelling, and punctuation. E. K. Chambers argued in 1930 that the Quarto came from a scribal manuscript while the Folio derived from Shakespeare's own handwriting. Alice Walker proposed in 1952 that the Folio was printed from a corrected copy of the Quarto. W. W. Greg suggested in 1955 that the Quarto's source was a difficult-to-read transcript of Shakespeare's foul papers. M. R. Ridley rejected Walker's theory in 1958, accepting Greg's view and arguing the Quarto held greater authority. Nevill Coghill claimed in 1964 that Folio changes were authorial improvements made after the play needed revision for the Act of Abuses. Gary Taylor agreed with Coghill but noted another scribal hand intervened in the Folio text. E. A. J. Honigmann revived aspects of Walker's argument in 1996, suggesting scribes consulted the Quarto when copying the Folio became illegible.
A. C. Bradley defined Othello's tragic flaw as sexual jealousy so intense it converts human nature into chaos. This emotion liberates the beast within man, forcing itself into consciousness in naked grossness. Animal imagery symbolizes this jealousy throughout the early acts. Iago mentions asses, daws, flies, rams, jennets, guinea-hens, baboons, wild-cats, snipes, monkeys, monsters, and wolves. From the third act onward, Othello adopts this line of imagery as his irrational jealousy takes hold. Diabolical images also appear frequently. Iago uses fourteen of his sixteen diabolical images in the first two acts. Othello then utilizes twenty-five of his twenty-six such images in the final three acts. Race serves to mark Othello as other within the Venetian society. He is both a Christian and a black African, existing simultaneously inside and outside that world. Paul Robeson considered Othello's color secondary, emphasizing cultural difference instead. Brabantio objects to Othello marrying Desdemona because she is a senator's daughter. This objection makes sense only through racist terms reinforced by bestial imagery from Iago. Slurs like thicklips, old black ram tupping your white ewe, Barbary horse, and sooty bosom suggest Shakespeare conceived Othello as a black African. Critics have long debated whether Othello represents a fully formed character or merely a white myth of black masculinity. Ben Okri argued in 1997 that black readers experience a different play than white ones do. The word whore appears fourteen times in Othello, more often than any other Shakespeare work. It functions as male-initiated inscription onto women as scapegoats. Whorishness becomes understood as the true nature of women yet remains a projection of male imagination unrelated to actual female behavior. Emilia revolts against misogyny, defying her husband Iago three times in the final scene. The handkerchief provides many examples of chance supporting Iago's plots. Desdemona loses it precisely when Iago needs evidence of an invented affair. Cassio fails to recognize its ownership. Bianca throws it back at him exactly when Othello eavesdrops. Symbolically the handkerchief represents the bond between Othello and Desdemona. Its loss signifies breaking that bond.
The UK National Film and Television Archive holds over twenty-five twentieth-century films containing performances, adaptations, or extracts from Othello. Orson Welles directed an adaptation released in 1951 that became critically panned upon initial release but acclaimed after restoration in 1992. Welles collected cast and crew for filming then stopped after four or five weeks when money ran out. He appeared in another movie using fees to reconvene filming scenes spliced together from actors filmed in Italy one year and Morocco the next. Shadows, extreme camera angles, discordant piano music, cages, grilles, and bars forced audience disorientation. Sergei Yutkevich created a Russian language version with screenplay by Boris Pasternan intended to make Shakespeare accessible to working men. His film began with Othello's backstory highlighting free will unlike Welles who started at story end highlighting fate. Laurence Olivier starred in a filmed stage performance of his National Theatre production in 1964. The Spectator described his performance as outsize, elaborate, overwhelming yet laughably over-the-top to modern eyes. It earned Oscar nominations for Olivier, Maggie Smith, Frank Finlay, and Joyce Redman. Barbara Hodgdon later argued Oliver confirmed absolute fidelity to white stereotypes of blackness. Jonathan Miller directed the last screen version portraying Othello in blackface for BBC Television Shakespeare series featuring Anthony Hopkins. Miller claimed play was about jealousy not race. Willard White performed Othello in a TV adaptation described by Carol Chillington Rutter as unique where women stories get fully told. Oliver Parker released an erotic thriller version in 1995 including ritualized love scene between Othello and Desdemona. Laurence Fishburne played Othello while Irène Jacob struggled with verse as Desdemona. Kenneth Branagh
portrayed Iago in this production creating tragedy of Iago rather than Othello.
Othello remains one of Shakespeare's greatest works classified among major tragedies alongside Macbeth King Lear and Hamlet. It has been popular among playgoers and literary critics since its first performance spawning numerous stage screen and operatic adaptations. Roles of Othello Iago Desdemona and Emilia are regarded as highly demanding and desirable by actors. Critical attention focuses on nature of play's tragedy unusual mechanics treatment of race motivations of Iago and his relationship to Othello. Thomas Rymer wrote in 1693 that play should better be called Tragedy of Handkerchief arguing no booby could make consequence from such remote trifle. Samuel Taylor Coleridge questioned whether play could even be true tragedy when dramatizing inviolable taboo of white woman with black man. He argued it would argue disproportionateness want of balance in Desdemona which Shakespeare did not appear to have contemplated. Martin Orkin vindicated Shakespeare in 1987 essay Othello and Plain Face of Racism acknowledging racist sentiments confined to discredited characters like Iago Roderigo and Brabantio. Howard University Press published Othello New Essays by Black Writers edited by Mythili Kaul in 1996 making clear black readers may experience different play than white ones. Ben Okri meditated on Othello in 1997 A Way of Being Free suggesting possible blackened white man not fully formed character but white myth stereotype of black masculinity. Play has provided opportunities for breakout roles for rising black stars including Chiwetel Ejiofor who played Othello at Donmar Warehouse in 2008. Lenny Henry changed direction playing Othello for Northern Broadsides in 2009 after being known as stand-up comedian. Antony Sher stared at audience before snap blackout in final moment of
his RSC Iago performance creating enigmatic open interpretation.
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Common questions
When did William Shakespeare write the play Othello?
William Shakespeare wrote The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice around 1603. This date aligns with historical events such as a Moorish ambassador visiting London in 1600.
What is the source material for the plot of Othello by William Shakespeare?
The core plot draws from a novella by Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio titled Gli Hecatommithi. Shakespeare adapted this narrative significantly to include elements like the Turkish invasion of Cyprus which were absent in the original text.
How many lines differ between the Quarto and Folio editions of Othello published after Shakespeare's death?
The Folio includes approximately 160 lines that are absent from the Quarto edition. Over one thousand variations exist between these two texts regarding wording, lineation, spelling, and punctuation.
Who directed the 1951 film adaptation of Othello released by Orson Welles?
Orson Welles directed an adaptation of Othello that was released in 1951. He collected cast and crew for filming but stopped after four or five weeks when money ran out before completing the project.
Which play does Thomas Rymer argue should be called Tragedy of Handkerchief instead of Othello?
Thomas Rymer wrote in 1693 that the play should better be called Tragedy of Handkerchief because no booby could make consequence from such remote trifle. This argument challenges the traditional classification of William Shakespeare's work as a major tragedy.