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National Security Act of 1947 | HearLore
— Ch. 1 · Postwar Military Reorganization —
National Security Act of 1947.
~7 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
The year 1945 marked the end of World War II, but it also began a four-year struggle to restructure the United States military. From 1921 to 1945, Congress considered approximately fifty bills to reorganize armed forces. Most failed due to opposition from both the Department of the Navy and the War Department. One bill even lost by a vote of 153 to 135 in 1932. The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor had already been investigated several times by groups like the Roberts Commission. Findings emerged linking intelligence failures to interservice bickering between General Walter Short and Admiral Husband Kimmel. They were accused of dereliction of duty for not coordinating despite warnings. Joint operations during the war remained voluntary and required complex interchanges of liaisons. Army and Navy often competed for resources like industrial production and new recruits. Enabling these operations created numerous joint agencies and interdepartmental committees. The Joint Chiefs of Staff became a key source of advocacy for creating a single unified military department after the war. George Marshall published a memo supporting postwar unification on the 2nd of November 1942. His plan called for reorganizing the Navy and War Departments into a single department led by a civilian secretary. It also proposed creating an independent air force under that new department.
Interservice Rivalry And Politics
The process of obtaining consensus took nearly four years as departments struggled to agree on how to proceed. On the 28th of March 1944, the House passed a resolution to create a Select Committee On Postwar Military Policy. Rep. Clifton A. Woodrum chaired this committee which included seven members from Naval Affairs and seven from Military Affairs. Lieutenant General Joseph McNarney presented the War Department's plan on the 25th of April 1944. Commandant Alexander Vandegrift addressed the committee on the 11th of May 1944. The hearings ended on the 19th of May 1944 with disagreements apparent between the two departments. Admiral James O. Richardson led his own committee interviewing eighty commanders at war and in Washington. Their findings suggested most Army officers and about half the Navy officers favored unification but disagreed on details. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal requested an objective investigation by Ferdinand Eberstadt. Eberstadt finished his report by late September 1945. The report recommended making the Joint Chiefs of Staff permanent and creating a Central Intelligence Agency. On the 30th of October 1945, General J. Lawton Collins presented the War Department's plan. Assistant Secretary of the Navy H. Struve Hensel presented the Navy's plan on the 29th of November 1945. Truman let Congress know his thoughts on the 19th of December 1945. His views mirrored the War Department plan in all respects.
Creation Of The Air Force
Aviation had become increasingly important during both world wars. The aircraft carrier had overtaken the battleship as the Navy's premier surface combatant. Army airmen called for an independent air service since 1919. The Army's Air Corps had already expanded into what bordered on a separate service. Curtis LeMay believed air power would inevitably become more decisive than ground warfare or sea power. The advent of nuclear weapons delivered by bombers led some leaders to believe air power was crucial. On March 15 and 16, 1947, Army Air Corps Commanding General Carl Spaatz and Army Chief of Staff Dwight Eisenhower wrote two papers marked TOP SECRET. These papers dealt with Army objectives for postwar unification. They bluntly stated their intent to marginalize the Marine Corps. Their proposal limited Marine units to regiments and below. It capped total size at 50,000 to 60,000 personnel. The papers barred Marines from wartime expansion and limited missions to guarding naval ships. Nimitz replied on March 30th with responses strongly against these proposals. On the 6th of May 1947, Commandant Alexander Vandegrift testified before Congress. He denounced the War Department plan as a transparent attempt to disband the Marine Corps. The Senate debated amendments regarding the status of Marine Corps and Naval Aviation until defeating them by a 52, 19 roll call vote.
Establishment Of Intelligence Agencies
The legislation's definition of covert action remained vague limiting oversight over CIA activities. Title I worked to establish the National Security Council as an advisory council to the president. This council handled matters relating to domestic, foreign, and military policies. It also established the Central Intelligence Agency under the National Security Council. The agency was led by the Director of Central Intelligence. Its role served as an advisory unit to the National Security Council and coordinator of intelligence. Truman published Executive Order 9877 on the 6th of June 1947 prescribing functions for each service. The order explicitly defined roles for the new agencies. The act created a National Security Resources Board advising the President on mobilization coordination. It also established a Research and Development Board replacing the Joint Research and Development Board. This board consisted of a chairman with two representatives from each military department. The board acted as an advisory unit conducting military research. On April 30th, the Senate Naval Affairs Committee began hearings to consider S. 2044. Representatives Judd and Brown passed amendments requiring the director of central intelligence be appointed by the president from civilian life. These amendments allowed the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Atomic Energy Commission to conduct secret operations without inspection.
Legislative Passage And Enactment
President Harry S. Truman sent a bill proposal to Congress on the 26th of February 1947. Representative Clare E. Hoffman introduced H.R. 2319 to the House on the 28th of February 1947. Senator Chan Gurney introduced S. 758 to the Senate on the 3rd of March 1947. Congressional hearings began on the 18th of March 1947 in three parts through the 9th of May 1947. Major witnesses included General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal. Merritt Edson testified in opposition on the 17th of June 1947 after retiring from active duty. He was the only active duty officer to do so. The Senate debated the bill on July 7 and 9, 1947 passing it by voice vote. The House debated and passed the act along with Resolution 80 H.Con.Res. 70 on the 19th of July 1947. The conference report was agreed to in both chambers by late July. Truman signed the National Security Act into law on the 26th of July 1947 aboard his VC-54C presidential aircraft Sacred Cow. He delayed departure until the bill was signed because he traveled to be at his dying mother's bedside. Most provisions took effect on the 18th of September 1947 when the Senate confirmed James Forrestal as first secretary of defense.
Immediate Implementation Challenges
James Forrestal had to live with watered-down powers he fought for as secretary of the Navy. His power was initially limited making it difficult to exercise authority effectively. He spent his tenure working to have the act amended. Cost savings promised were fleeting and arguable. Even before passage, military budget ceilings had been cut by two thirds. Truman cut the budget again by several billion dollars in the first year after enactment. Defense budgets returned to previous levels by the next year. Problems of joint operations remained bad among services. The act preceded a heightened period of interservice rivalries and parochialism. Fights erupted between Army and Air Force over close air support. Disputes arose between Air Force and Navy regarding carrier development versus strategic bombing capabilities. Attempts continued to marginalize the Marine Corps by both Army and Navy. On the 1st of June 1948, the Air Transport Command and Naval Air Transport Service combined into Military Air Transport Service. This eliminated some duplication but did not solve broader coordination issues. Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson later cancelled aircraft carrier USS United States without consulting Congress following 1949 amendments.
Long Term Legacy And Amendments
On the 10th of August 1949, the act was amended converting National Military Establishment into Cabinet-level Department of Defense. Three military departments were placed under secretary of defense authority. Secretaries lost statutory access to president but gained access to Congress. They also lost membership in National Security Council. Chief of staff to commander in chief replaced with full-time chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff senior in rank. War Council renamed Armed Forces Policy Council. In September 1962, Robert Heinl wrote an account for Proceedings magazine about unification battle. Pentagon blocked its publication initially. A Senate subcommittee began hearings regarding censorship five days later. Strom Thurmond used this evidence to focus media attention on negative statements made by Truman and Eisenhower. Victor Krulak published First to Fight in 1984 which remains on Commandant's Professional Reading List. Following joint operations problems in Iranian hostage rescue in 1980 and Grenada invasion in 1983, Congress passed Goldwater, Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act in 1986. By end of 1952, Army and Air Force secretaries signed Pace-Finletter memorandum removing weight limits on helicopters. Army-owned helicopters proliferated during Vietnam War. In 1983, establishment of United States Army Aviation Branch effectively recreated Army Air Forces.
When was the National Security Act of 1947 signed into law?
President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 into law on the 26th of July 1947 aboard his VC-54C presidential aircraft Sacred Cow.
Who introduced the bill for the National Security Act of 1947 to Congress?
Representative Clare E. Hoffman introduced H.R. 2319 to the House on the 28th of February 1947 and Senator Chan Gurney introduced S. 758 to the Senate on the 3rd of March 1947.
What agencies did the National Security Act of 1947 create?
The legislation established the National Security Council as an advisory council to the president and created the Central Intelligence Agency under that council.
How many votes were cast in the Senate roll call regarding Marine Corps status during the National Security Act of 1947 debate?
The Senate defeated amendments regarding the status of Marine Corps and Naval Aviation by a 52, 19 roll call vote after debating them until May 1947.
When was the National Military Establishment converted into the Department of Defense?
On the 10th of August 1949, the act was amended converting the National Military Establishment into the Cabinet-level Department of Defense.