Nanotechnology
In 1959, physicist Richard Feynman delivered a talk titled There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom. He described the possibility of synthesizing matter through direct manipulation of atoms. This concept seeded the field that would later be called nanotechnology. The term nano-technology first appeared in print in 1974 when Norio Taniguchi used it to describe precision machining processes. K. Eric Drexler popularized the word in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. His work thrust the idea into public consciousness by proposing a nanoscale assembler capable of building copies of itself and other items with atom-level control. In 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute to increase public awareness about these concepts.
The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 enabled visualization of individual atoms and bonds for the first time. Scientists successfully used this device to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory developed the instrument and received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. They also invented the atomic force microscope that same year. Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl discovered fullerenes known as buckyballs in 1985. These researchers won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery. Sumio Iijima of NEC identified carbon nanotubes in 1991, which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices. Iijima later won the inaugural 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work.
A public debate emerged between K. Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley regarding the feasibility of molecular assemblers. This exchange culminated in letters published in Chemical & Engineering News during 2003. Drexler envisioned manufacturing technology based on mechanical engineering principles using gears, bearings, motors, and structural members. He argued that programmable positional assembly to atomic specification was possible through mechanosynthesis. Richard Smalley countered that mechanosynthesis was impossible due to difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules. Alex Zettl and colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories constructed three molecular devices whose motion is controlled via changing voltage. Ho and Lee at Cornell University moved an individual carbon monoxide molecule to an iron atom in 1999 by applying a voltage.
Two main approaches define how scientists construct materials at the nanoscale. The bottom-up approach builds materials from molecular components that assemble themselves chemically through molecular recognition. DNA nanotechnology utilizes Watson-Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids. Molecular self-assembly causes single-molecule components to automatically arrange into useful conformations. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for discovering giant magnetoresistance used in hard drives. Focused ion beams can directly remove material or deposit it when suitable precursor gases are applied simultaneously. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed molecular-beam epitaxy as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. This technique lays down atomically precise layers of atoms to build complex structures.
As of the 21st of August 2008, over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products were publicly available according to Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates. New items hit the market at a pace of three to four per week during that period. Titanium dioxide appears in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings, and some food products. Silver nanoparticles function as antibacterial agents in socks and clothing. Zinc oxide serves similar roles in sunscreens and outdoor furniture varnishes. Single wall carbon nanotubes address key lithium-ion battery challenges including energy density and charge rate. Tennis balls last longer while golf balls fly straighter due to these materials. Trousers and socks infused with nanotechnology lower temperature in summer months. Bandages containing silver nanoparticles heal cuts faster than standard versions.
Inhaling airborne nanoparticles may contribute to pulmonary diseases such as fibrosis. When rats breathed in nanoparticles, particles settled in their brains and lungs leading to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation. A two-year study at UCLA's School of Public Health found lab mice consuming nano-titanium dioxide showed DNA and chromosome damage linked to cancer and heart disease. Some forms of carbon nanotubes could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh stated that certain materials need very careful handling. Researchers discovered bacteriostatic silver nanoparticles used in socks are released into wastewater streams where they may destroy critical ecosystem bacteria. Workers in a paint factory developed serious lung disease after exposure to nanoparticles.
The National Nanotechnology Initiative formalized a size-based definition of nanotechnology and established research funding in America. European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development supported similar efforts across Europe. As of 206 Berkeley, California was the only US city to regulate nanotechnology directly. Andrew Maynard reported insufficient funding for human health and safety research resulting in inadequate understanding of risks. The Royal Society recommended manufacturers publish procedures outlining how materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure during disposal or recycling. Public deliberations on risk perception conducted by the Center for Nanotechnology in Society found participants more positive about energy applications than health applications. Experts testified that commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement.
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Common questions
When did Richard Feynman deliver the talk that seeded nanotechnology?
Richard Feynman delivered the talk titled There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom in 1959. This presentation described the possibility of synthesizing matter through direct manipulation of atoms.
Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope and when was it developed?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer developed the scanning tunneling microscope at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory in 1981. They received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986 for this invention.
What are the two main approaches scientists use to construct materials at the nanoscale?
Scientists utilize bottom-up and top-down approaches to build materials at the nanoscale. The bottom-up approach builds materials from molecular components that assemble themselves chemically through molecular recognition.
How many manufacturer-identified nanotech products were publicly available as of August 2008?
Over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products were publicly available as of the 21st of August 2008 according to Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates. New items hit the market at a pace of three to four per week during that period.
Why do some researchers consider certain carbon nanotubes potentially harmful if inhaled?
Some forms of carbon nanotubes could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. When rats breathed in nanoparticles, particles settled in their brains and lungs leading to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation.