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— CH. 1 · ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT —

Mithraism

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  • The first known monument showing Mithras killing a bull appears in Rome, dedicated by an official named Alcimus around the year 101 CE. This artifact marks the sudden appearance of underground temples called mithraea across the Roman Empire during the last quarter of the 1st century CE. Archaeologists have cataloged over 420 sites containing materials related to this cult, yet no written narratives or theology from the religion itself survive for modern study. The mysteries were popular among the Imperial Roman army from the 1st to the 4th century AD and spread as far south as Roman Africa and Numidia. They reached as far east as Roman Dacia and as far north as Roman Britain. A certain Pallas devoted a monograph to Mithras while Euboulus wrote a History of Mithras shortly after, though both works are now lost. The cult appears to have had its centre in Rome and was popular throughout the western half of the empire.

  • Every mithraeum contained a centerpiece relief depicting Mithras clothed in Anatolian costume and wearing a Phrygian cap kneeling on an exhausted bull. He holds the bull's nostrils with his left hand while stabbing it with his right hand and looking over his shoulder toward Sol. A dog and a snake reach up towards the blood while a scorpion seizes the bull's genitals. One or three ears of wheat emerge from the bull's tail sometimes from the wound. Two torch-bearers named Cautes and Cautopates stand on either side dressed like Mithras with their torches pointing up or down respectively. The event takes place in a cavern surrounded by a circle showing the twelve signs of the zodiac. Outside the cavern top left is Sol the sun driving a quadriga while Luna drives a biga at the top right. Some reliefs were constructed so that they could be turned on an axis revealing another more elaborate feasting scene on the reverse.

  • Initiates into each grade appeared required to undertake specific ordeals involving exposure to heat cold or threatened peril within an ordeal pit dating to the early 3rd century found at Carrawburgh. Seven grades of initiation existed listed by St Jerome including Corax Raven Nymphus Bridegroom Miles Soldier Leo Lion Perses Persian Heliodromus Sun Runner and Pater Father. Admission into the community was completed with a handshake with the pater just as Mithras and Sol shook hands. Initiates called themselves syndexioi meaning those united by the handshake. A mosaic in the Mithraeum of Felicissimus at Ostia Antica depicts these grades with symbolic emblems connected to planets. Most rituals were associated with feasting where eating utensils and food residues are often found including large quantities of fruit residues like cherry-stones confirming mid-summer festivities. The size of the mithraeum typically accommodated 15 to 30 diners but rarely many more than 40 men.

  • Over 420 sites have yielded materials related to the cult including about 1000 inscriptions and 700 examples of the bull-killing scene known as tauroctony. It has been estimated that there would have been at least 680 mithraea in the city of Rome alone. These temples are sunk below ground windowless and very distinctive often converted from natural caves or basement levels of apartment blocks. They are commonly located close to springs or streams where fresh water appears required for some Mithraic rituals. Burned residues of animal entrails are commonly found on main altars indicating regular sacrificial use though mithraea do not appear provided with facilities for ritual slaughter. Large numbers of votive coins deposited by worshippers recovered at the Mithraeum at Pons Sarravi run from Gallienus reigning 253, 268 CE to Theodosius I reigning 379, 395 CE. These coins were scattered over the floor when the mithraeum was destroyed suggesting Christians regarded them as polluted.

  • Franz Cumont published a two volume collection of source texts and images in French between 1894 and 1900 arguing the Roman religion was the Roman form of Mazdaism disseminated from the East. John R. Hinnells and R.L. Gordon criticized this theory at the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies held in 1971 stating it received no support from Iranian material. David Ulansey argues that the mysteries began in the Greco-Roman world as a religious response to Hipparchus discovering the precession of equinoxes. Beck theorizes the cult was created in Rome by a single founder who had knowledge of both Greek and Oriental religion. Merkelbach suggests its mysteries were essentially created by a particular person or persons working in court circles in Rome. Clauss tends to agree with Beck calling this the most likely scenario while noting that until now Mithraism has generally been treated as if it somehow evolved Topsy-like from its Iranian precursor which is implausible once stated explicitly.

  • Mithraists faced persecution from Christians in the 4th century and the religion was subsequently suppressed and eliminated in the Roman Empire by the end of the century. Tertullian wrote that initiates received a ritual bath and a mark on the forehead possibly the Latin letter M standing for their messianic god-king Mithras. Justin Martyr contrasted Mithraic initiation communion with the Eucharist claiming evil demons mimicked Christian rites using bread and water. The historian Jacob Burckhardt noted that the religion never became one of the state cults despite participation by Emperor Commodus who desecrated the rites with actual murder. Inscriptions show Mithras listed among cults by Roman senators who had not converted to Christianity during the pagan revival of the second half of the 4th century. Large numbers of votive coins recovered at Pons Sarravi run up to Theodosius I suggesting functioning of the mithraeum near the end of the century before destruction.

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Common questions

When did the first known monument showing Mithras killing a bull appear in Rome?

The first known monument appears around the year 101 CE and was dedicated by an official named Alcimus. This artifact marks the sudden appearance of underground temples called mithraea across the Roman Empire during the last quarter of the 1st century CE.

How many sites containing materials related to the cult have archaeologists cataloged so far?

Archaeologists have cataloged over 420 sites containing materials related to this cult yet no written narratives or theology from the religion itself survive for modern study. It has been estimated that there would have been at least 680 mithraea in the city of Rome alone.

What specific grades of initiation existed within the seven grade system listed by St Jerome?

Seven grades of initiation existed including Corax Raven Nymphus Bridegroom Miles Soldier Leo Lion Perses Persian Heliodromus Sun Runner and Pater Father. Admission into the community was completed with a handshake with the pater just as Mithras and Sol shook hands.

Where were most mithraea located relative to natural water sources?

Mithraea are commonly located close to springs or streams where fresh water appears required for some Mithraic rituals. These temples are sunk below ground windowless and very distinctive often converted from natural caves or basement levels of apartment blocks.

Who published a two volume collection of source texts and images arguing the Roman religion was the Roman form of Mazdaism between 1894 and 1900?

Franz Cumont published a two volume collection of source texts and images in French between 1894 and 1900 arguing the Roman religion was the Roman form of Mazdaism disseminated from the East. John R. Hinnells and R.L. Gordon criticized this theory at the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies held in 1971 stating it received no support from Iranian material.

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All sources

126 references cited across the entry

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