Mahmud II
On the 20th of July 1785, Mahmud II was born into the Ottoman imperial family. His father Abdul Hamid I died in 1789, leaving young Mahmud confined within the Kafes prison system of the Topkapi Palace. This isolation lasted for nearly two decades until a violent coup erupted in 1808. The deposed Sultan Mustafa IV ordered the execution of both his cousin Selim III and the imprisoned Mahmud to eliminate all rivals. A Georgian slave girl named Cevri Kalfa intervened during the chaos. She threw ashes into the faces of assassins approaching Mahmud's chamber, temporarily blinding them. This delay allowed the future sultan to escape through a window and climb onto the harem roof. Pages on the Third Court roof helped him descend using tied pieces of cloth as a makeshift ladder. Rebel leader Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived shortly after with armed men and proclaimed Mahmud the new padishah. Cevri Kalfa received the title haznedar usta, chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, for her bravery.
The year 1812 marked a significant territorial loss when the Treaty of Bucharest forced the Ottoman Empire to cede Bessarabia to Russia. This region became known as the eastern half of Moldavia under Russian control. Another conflict began in 1821 when Greece declared independence following a rebellion that started that same year. British, French, and Russian navies supported the Greek cause against Ottoman forces. The Battle of Navarino in 1827 saw the combined fleets defeat the Ottoman Navy. By July 1832, the Treaty of Constantinople required Mahmud II to recognize an independent Greek state. France conquered Ottoman Algeria beginning in 1830, marking another major territorial loss. A Russo-Turkish War fought between 1828 and 1829 resulted in further losses for the empire. Marshal von Diebitsch led Russian troops across the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople without facing Janissary resistance. These defeats signaled the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire.
June 1826 witnessed the violent destruction of the Janissary corps, an event known as the Auspicious Incident. Sultan Mahmud II orchestrated this operation using his recently reformed military wing to replace the traditional Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against proposed reforms, he ordered their barracks fired upon. This action effectively crushed the formerly elite Ottoman troops. He burned Belgrad Forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remaining remnants of the corps. The elimination of the Janissaries permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army recruited mainly from Turkish speakers in Rumelia and Anatolia. The new force was named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye. Following this suppression, Mahmud II also subjugated the Iraqi Mamluks through Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of Albanian Ali Pasha of Yanina and later sent his Grand Vizier to execute Bosniak commander Husein Gradaščević after suppressing a Bosnian uprising.
In 1834, a firman dated February 22nd abolished charges public functionaries had long taken from locals when traveling through provinces. This edict denounced all collection of money except during two regular half-yearly periods as abuses. Sultan Mahmud II stated that such acts were contrary to both God's will and imperial orders. The same year saw the abolition of the haraç capitation-tax under an old mode of levying it. A commission composed of Kadis or governors and Ayans or municipal chiefs now raised these taxes in each district. In 1838, Mahmud established the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances. The following year he introduced a Council of Ministers known as Meclis-i Vükela. These institutions aimed to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency. He closed the Court of Confiscations and removed much power from Pashas regarding property forfeiture. An appeal system allowed criminals to petition a Kazasker chief military judge of Asia or Europe before reaching the Sultan himself.
The Ottoman Navy acquired its first steamships in 1828 following the loss of Greece at Navarino. In 1829, the world's largest warship for many years was built at the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn. The ship named Mahmudiye measured 201 by 56 kadem and carried 128 cannons across three decks. It transported 1,280 sailors aboard during numerous important naval battles including the Siege of Sevastopol between 1854 and 1855. Mahmud II dealt effectively with military fiefs called tımars and ziamets that had long ceased serving their purpose. By attaching these lands to public domains, he strengthened state resources and ended host of corruptions. One resolute act involved suppressing derebeys valley lords who had made themselves petty princes in almost every province. Cyprus became the only part of the empire where power not emanating from the Sultan remained retained by local chiefs.
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Common questions
When was Mahmud II born and what happened to him after his father died?
Mahmud II was born on the 20th of July 1785. After his father Abdul Hamid I died in 1789, young Mahmud was confined within the Kafes prison system of the Topkapi Palace for nearly two decades.
How did Mahmud II escape execution during the coup of 1808?
A Georgian slave girl named Cevri Kalfa threw ashes into the faces of assassins approaching Mahmud's chamber to blind them temporarily. This delay allowed the future sultan to escape through a window and climb onto the harem roof where pages helped him descend using tied pieces of cloth as a makeshift ladder.
What major military event occurred in June 1826 under Sultan Mahmud II?
June 1826 witnessed the violent destruction of the Janissary corps known as the Auspicious Incident. Sultan Mahmud II orchestrated this operation by ordering his reformed military wing to fire upon the Janissaries barracks and burn Belgrad Forest outside Istanbul to incinerate remaining remnants.
Which territories did the Ottoman Empire lose during the reign of Mahmud II between 1812 and 1832?
The year 1812 marked a significant territorial loss when the Treaty of Bucharest forced the Ottoman Empire to cede Bessarabia to Russia. France conquered Ottoman Algeria beginning in 1830, and by July 1832 the Treaty of Constantinople required Mahmud II to recognize an independent Greek state following the Battle of Navarino in 1827.
What administrative reforms did Mahmud II implement in 1834 and 1838?
In 1834 a firman dated February 22nd abolished charges public functionaries had long taken from locals when traveling through provinces. In 1838 Mahmud established the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances and introduced a Council of Ministers known as Meclis-i Vükela the following year to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency.