Mahabharata
The Mahabharata began as an orally transmitted tale of charioteer bards. It grew from a core portion of 24,000 verses known as the Bharata proper. This earliest layer likely emerged after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire rose in the third century BCE. Some scholars suggest this date is close to the 8th or 9th century BCE. The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The bulk of the epic was compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. The oldest preserved parts are not much older than around 400 BCE. Panini's 4th century BCE grammar Ashtadhyayi contains a reference to bhārata. This suggests some parts were already known during his time. Hermann Oldenberg once dismissed the full text as a horrible chaos. Moritz Winternitz claimed only unpoetical theologians could have lumped disparate origins into an unordered whole. Vishnu Sukthankar argued that reconstructing a fluid original shape based on an archetype is useless. His objective became reconstructing the oldest form possible from available manuscript material. Manuscript evidence is somewhat late due to India's climate but remains extensive. At least three redactions are commonly recognized: Jaya with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, the Bharata with 24,000 verses recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the Mahabharata with over 100,000 verses recited by Ugrashrava Sauti. The Spitzer manuscript dates to the Kushan Period around 200 CE. It is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Silk Road.
King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu married Satyavati after she agreed to make her future son king upon his death. Devavrata relinquished his right to the throne and took a vow of lifelong celibacy. He later became known as Bhishma. When King Shantanu died, Chitrangada ruled briefly before dying. Vichitravirya then ruled Hastinapura until he died young without heirs. Satyavati asked her first son Vyasa to father children with the widows. Ambika shut her eyes when seeing him so Dhritarashtra was born blind. Ambalika turned pale and bloodless so Pandu was born pale and unhealthy. Vidura was born healthy from a maid sent in their place. He grew up to be one of the wisest figures serving as Prime Minister. Dhritarashtra had a hundred sons including Duryodhana and one daughter Duhsala. Pandu married Kunti and Madri. Kunti used a boon from Sage Durvasa to invoke gods for sons. She gave birth to Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna through Dharma, Vayu, and Indra. Madri bore twins Nakula and Sahadeva through Ashwini twins. Pandu died after killing a sage disguised as a deer. His wife Madri committed suicide out of remorse. Shakuni enraged by Gandhari's self-blinding vowed revenge on the Kuru family. The Pandavas escaped a palace fire set by Purochana thanks to Vidura's warning. They hid while Bhima married Hidimbi and had a son Ghatotkacha. A swayamvara for Draupadi involved stringing a steel bow and shooting an eye of a moving fish reflected in oil below. Arjuna won the contest and married her. Kunti asked them to share whatever he brought back without looking. Thus Draupadi became wife to all five brothers. Duryodhana insulted by seeing water where there was none decided to host a dice game. Shakuni played against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. Yudhishthira lost his wealth kingdom brothers himself and finally his wife into servitude. The Kauravas tried to disrobe Draupadi but Krishna made her dress endless so it could not be removed. The Pandavas were required to go into exile for 12 years plus one year hidden called Agyaata Vaasa. If discovered they would face another 12-year exile. They spent their final year in disguise at King Virata's court before being discovered just after the year ended.
Arjuna noticed opposing armies included cousins relatives grandfather Bhishma and teacher Drona. He fell into despair refusing to fight. Krishna reminded him of duty as a Kshatriya to fight for righteous cause. This famous section is known as the Bhagavad Gita. It offers one of first instances theorizing about dharmayuddha or just war. One brother asks if suffering caused by war can ever be justified. Long discussion establishes criteria like proportionality chariots cannot attack cavalry only other chariots. No attacking people in distress. Just means require no poisoned or barbed arrows. Fair treatment demanded for captives wounded. Both sides soon adopt dishonorable tactics despite initial chivalrous notions. At end of 18-day battle only seven warriors remain on Pandava side three on Kaurava side. Yudhishthira becomes king of Hastinapura. All warriors who died go to swarga. Gandhari lost all sons so she curses Krishna to witness similar annihilation of his family. Krishna accepts curse which bears fruit 36 years later. The Pandavas decide to renounce everything clad in skins rags climbing toward heaven bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one brothers Draupadi fall on way. Each stumble reveals reason: Draupadi partial to Arjuna Nakula Sahadeva vain proud looks Bhima Arjuna proud strength archery skills. Only virtuous Yudhishthira and dog remain. Dog reveals himself god Yama taking him underworld where he sees siblings wife. After explaining test nature Yama takes him back heaven assuring siblings wife join after exposure measures time according vices. Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules dies bitten snake. His furious son Janamejaya performs snake sacrifice destroy snakes. Tale ancestors narrated during this sacrifice.
Historicity Kurukshetra War remains unclear. Many historians estimate date Iron Age India 10th century BCE. Historian A.L. Basham states popular tradition places war 3102 BCE quite impossible light evidence. More reasonable tradition places it 15th century BCE several centuries too early archaeological knowledge. Probably war took place around beginning 9th century BCE fits well scanty archaeological remains period. Evidence Brahmana literature shows cannot much earlier. Setting epic has historical precedent Iron Age Vedic India Kuru kingdom center political power roughly 1200 to 800 BCE. Dynastic conflict period could inspiration Jaya foundation Mahabharata corpus built climactic battle eventually viewed epochal event. Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated narrative. Direct statement says 1,015 years between birth Parikshit accession Mahapadma Nanda 400, 329 BCE yielding estimate about 1400 BCE Bharata battle. This implies improbably long reigns average kings listed genealogies. Estimates show averages 47 50 31 35 various versions lists. Analysis parallel genealogies times Adhisimakrishna Mahapadma Nanda yields 26 generations averaging 10 dynastic lists assuming 18 years average duration reign arriving estimate 850 BCE Adhisimakrishna thus approximately 950 BCE Bharata battle. B.B. Lal used same approach conservative assumption average reign estimating date 836 BCE correlated archaeological evidence Painted Grey Ware sites strong association PGW artifacts places mentioned epic. John Keay suggests core narratives relate events prior all but Rig Veda. Attempts dating using archaeoastronomy methods produced estimates ranging late 4th mid-2nd millennium BCE depending passages chosen interpreted. Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE war while Puranic data place it 10th/9th century BCE. Archaeological evidence points latter.
Between 1919 and 1966 scholars Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Pune compared manuscripts India abroad producing Critical Edition Mahabharata 13,000 pages 19 volumes over span 47 years followed Harivamsha another two volumes six index volumes. This text usually current Mahabharata studies reference sometimes called Pune Poona edition. The first Bengali translations emerged 16th century disputed Kavindra Parameshwar Hooghly based Chittagong Sri Sanjay Sylhet first translate it. Persian translation Razmnameh produced Akbar's orders Faizi Abd al-Qadir Badayuni 16th century. First complete English translation Victorian prose version Kisari Mohan Ganguli published between 1883 1896 Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Manmatha Nath Dutt Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Most critics consider Ganguli translation faithful original text. Complete text public domain available online. Early poetry translation Romesh Chunder Dutt published 1898 condenses main themes English verse. Poetic rendering full epic English done poet P Lal completed posthumously student published Writers Workshop Calcutta. Non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering only edition language include slokas all recensions work not just those Critical Edition. Dr Pradip Bhattacharya states P Lal version known academia vulgate. Text transcreation rather traditional translation. Project translating full epic English prose translated various hands began appear 2005 Clay Sanskrit Library published New York University Press. Translation based not Critical Edition version known commentator Nilakantha. Currently available 15 volumes projected 32-volume edition. Indian Vedic Scholar Shripad Damodar Satwalekar translated Critical Edition Mahabharata Hindi assigned Government India. After death task taken Shrutisheel Sharma. Indian economist Bibek Debroy wrote unabridged English translation ten volumes Volume Adi Parva published March 2010 last two volumes December 2014. Abhinav Agarwal referred Debroy translation thoroughly enjoyable impressively scholarly. Gautam Chikermane Hindustan Times wrote where both Debroy Ganguli get tiresome use adjectives describing protagonists.
Many regional versions developed time mostly differing minor details verses subsidiary stories added. Tamil street theatre terukkuttu kattaikkuttu plays use themes Tamil language versions focusing Draupadi. Outside Indian subcontinent Indonesia version developed ancient Java Kakawin Bharatayuddha 11th century under patronage King Dharmawangsa 990, 1016 later spread neighboring island Bali remains Hindu majority island today. Fertile source Javanese literature dance drama wayang wong wayang shadow puppet performances. Javanese version differs slightly original Indian version notable difference inclusion Punakawans clown servants main figures storyline Semar Petruk Gareng Bagong much-loved Indonesian audiences. Spin-off episodes developed ancient Java Arjunawiwaha composed 11th century. Kawi version eight eighteen parvas survive found Indonesian island Bali translated English Dr I Gusti Putu Phalgunadi. Bhasa 2nd-3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright wrote two plays episodes Marabharata Urubhanga Broken Thigh fight Duryodhana Bhima Madhyamavyayoga Middle One set around Bhima son Ghatotkacha. First important play 20th century Andha Yug Blind Epoch Dharamvir Bharati came 1955 found Mahabharat ideal source expression modern predicaments discontent. Starting Ebrahim Alkazi staged numerous directors. V.S. Khandekar Marathi novel Yayati 1960 Girish Karnad debut play Yayati 1961 based story King Yayati found Mahabharat. Bengali writer playwright Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set Mahabharat Anamni Angana Pratham Partha Kalsandhya. Pratibha Ray wrote award winning novel Yajnaseni Draupadi's perspective 1984. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote similar novel Palace Illusions Novel 2008. Gujarati poet Chinu Modi written long narrative poetry Bahuk figure Bahuka. Krishna Udayasankar Singapore-based Indian author written several novels modern-day retellings epic Aryavarta Chronicles Series. Suman Pokhrel wrote solo play Ray's novel personalizing taking Draupadi alone scene. Amar Chitra Katha published 1,260-page comic book version Mahabharata. In Indian cinema several film versions made dating back 1920. Mahabharata reinterpreted Shyam Benegal Kalyug. Prakash Jha directed 2010 film Raajneeti partially inspired Mahabharata. 2013 animated adaptation holds record India's most expensive animated film. B.R. Chopra created television series named Mahabharat directed Ravi Chopra 1988, 1990 TV series televised India's national television Doordarshan. Same year Bharat Ek Khoj also directed Shyam Benegal showed 2-episode abbreviation drawing various interpretations sung danced staged. Western world well-known presentation Peter Brook nine-hour play premiered Avignon 1985 five-hour movie version The Mahabharata 1989 mini-series. Late 2013 Mahabharat televised STAR Plus produced Swastik Productions Pvt. Zee TV television series aired the 26th of October 2001 the 26th of July 2002 starred Siraj Mustafa Khan Krishna Suneel Mattoo Yudhishthira. Uncompleted projects Rajkumar Santoshi theatrical adaptation planned Satyajit Ray. BBC adapted nine-part radio drama entitled Mahabharata Now action updated modern-day India hinges massive conglomerate company fate entire kingdom. Every year Garhwal region Uttarakhand villagers perform Pandav Lila ritual re-enactment episodes dancing singing recitation. Cultural highlight year usually performed November February. Folk instruments dhol damau two long trumpets bhankore accompany action. Amateur actors often break spontaneous dance possessed spirits figures Mahabharata.
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Common questions
When was the Mahabharata written and when did it reach its final form?
The bulk of the epic was compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period.
Who are the main characters in the Mahabharata story about the Kuru dynasty?
King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu married Satyavati to produce Bhishma, Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura. The conflict centers on the five Pandava brothers Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva against their hundred cousins known as the Kauravas led by Duryodhana.
What is the historical date for the Kurukshetra War described in the Mahabharata?
Historians estimate the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century BCE based on archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware sites. Some astronomical calculations favor the 15th century BCE while Puranic data suggest the 10th or 9th century BCE.
How many volumes make up the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata published by scholars at Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute?
Scholars produced a Critical Edition consisting of 13,000 pages across 19 volumes over a span of 47 years between 1919 and 1966. This text includes an additional Harivamsha section with two more volumes and six index volumes.
When was the first complete English translation of the Mahabharata published?
The first complete English translation was a Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli published between 1883 and 1896. A poetic rendering by Romesh Chunder Dutt followed in 1898 before P Lal completed his verse translation posthumously.