Magic (supernatural)
The English word magic traces its lineage back to the Old Persian term maguš, a designation for a specific priestly class within ancient Persia. Herodotus recorded one of the earliest surviving accounts of these Persian magi in his historical writings during the fifth century BCE. The Greek language adopted this concept as μάγος, which eventually evolved into the Latin magus and then the modern English magic. This linguistic journey reflects a profound shift in meaning over millennia. In the original context, the Persian magu- derived from the Proto-Indo-European root meg-h-magh, simply meaning to be able or capable. By the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Greek term goetia entered the lexicon with negative connotations. It described rites viewed as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous by the Greeks themselves. These practices involved the evocation of daimons to control powers that were otherwise inaccessible. Hellenistic authors later categorized diverse activities like enchantment, witchcraft, divination, necromancy, and astrology under the single label of magic. The Latin language absorbed this transformed meaning in the first century BCE. Christian theology incorporated the concept during the first century CE, associating it directly with demons. Protestants in early modern Europe often claimed Roman Catholicism was merely magic rather than true religion. As European colonizers expanded their reach in the sixteenth century, they labeled non-Christian beliefs encountered abroad as magical. Italian humanists simultaneously reinterpreted the term positively to express natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings have recurred throughout Western culture since that time.
Defensive magic known as asiputu or massmassut served as incantations intended to alter specific realities in ancient Mesopotamia. The ancient Mesopotamians believed magic was the only viable defense against demons, ghosts, and evil sorcerers who might curse them. To defend themselves against spirits of those they had wronged, people left offerings called kispu in a person's tomb. If that failed, they sometimes buried a figurine of the deceased in the ground demanding gods eradicate the spirit. Black magic did not exist as a category in ancient Mesopotamia; legitimate defenders used the same techniques as illegitimate attackers. A ritual to punish a sorcerer known as Maqlû involved creating an effigy of the accused sorcerer at night. Once the nature of the sorcerer's crimes was determined, the effigy would be burned to break their power over the victim. Another purification ritual called Šurpu transferred guilt for unknowingly committed misdeeds onto objects like dates, onions, and wool tufts before burning them. Love spells existed to cause a person to fall in love, restore faded affection, or help a male partner sustain an erection. These rituals were generally performed by an āšipu, an expert in magical arts held in extremely high regard. This profession passed down from generation to generation and often served kings and great leaders as advisors. An āšipu functioned as a magician, physician, priest, scribe, and scholar simultaneously. The Sumerian god Enki, later syncretized with the East Semitic god Ea, was the patron deity of these practitioners. Incantation bowls produced in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria during the sixth to eighth centuries captured demons when buried face down under thresholds or courtyards.
In ancient Egypt, magic personified as the god Heka was an integral part of religion and culture known through substantial textual corpora. The Coptic term hik descends from the pharaonic term heka which had no connotation of impiety or illegality from the Old Kingdom through the Roman era. Instructions for Merikare state that heka was a beneficence gifted by the creator to humanity as weapons to ward off events. Both literate priestly hierarchies and illiterate farmers practiced this principle underlying all ritual activity in temples and private settings. The interior walls of the pyramid of Unas contain hundreds of magical spells running floor to ceiling in vertical columns. These inscriptions are known as Pyramid Texts and were strictly reserved for royalty only until tomb robbers broke into them during the First Intermediate Period. Commoners began inscribing similar writings on their coffins by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom hoping to ensure survival in the afterlife. These later writings are called Coffin Texts. The last ceremony before sealing a body inside a tomb was known as the Opening of the Mouth. Priests touched various magical instruments to parts of the deceased's body giving them the ability to see, hear, taste, and smell in the afterlife. Amulets called meket were used widely among both living and dead ancient Egyptians for protection and reaffirming universal fairness. The oldest amulets found date back to the predynastic Badarian Period and persisted through to Roman times.
During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Persian maguš transformed meaning when introduced into ancient Greek language as μάγος. Ancient Greeks regarded the magos as a charlatan whose ritual practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and dangerous. Richard Gordon suggested that being accused of practicing magic functioned as a form of insult within ancient Greek society. This change in meaning was influenced by military conflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire. Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex features the character Oedipus derogatorily referring to the seer Tiresius as a magos. In the first century BCE, the Greek concept adopted Latin usage as magus and magia appearing in Virgil's Eclogue around 40 BCE. Romans placed greater emphasis on judicial application compared to Greeks while using terms like veneficus and saga for negative supernatural powers. Pliny the Elder claimed magic had been created by Iranian philosopher Zoroaster and brought west into Greece by magician Osthanes. Laws criminalizing things regarded as magic were introduced within the Roman Empire during the first century CE. The Codex Theodosianus from 438 AD states that the practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world. Katadesmoi were curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets buried underground frequently executed by all strata of Greek society. Private curses remained common throughout antiquity distinguished by individualistic, instrumental, and sinister qualities. A large number of magical papyri recovered contain early instances of magic words commanding spirits and mysterious symbols evoking them.
Early Christian authors absorbed Greco-Roman concepts of magic incorporating them into developing Christian theology during the first century CE. Augustine of Hippo argued that magic relied upon cooperation from demons who were henchmen of Satan rather than just fraudulent rituals. Isidore of Seville produced a catalogue listing divination by four elements geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, pyromancy plus astrology and enchantment. Medieval Europe saw magic associated with Solomon leading to grimoires like Key of Solomon claiming divine origin for magical practices. Maleficium applied to forms of magic conducted with intention of causing harm appeared in various European languages including sorcière Hexe strega bruja. The English term witch derived from earlier Old English wicce reflecting malevolent practitioners of magic. Christian theologians believed multiple different forms existed majority being types of divination. Christians often suspected Muslims and Jews engaging in magical practices resulting in massacres over alleged Jewish sacrifice of Christian children. Protestant groups accused rival Christian sects like Hussites of engaging in magical activities while Roman Catholics defended their sacraments as religious not magical. Isaac Newton delved into alchemy collecting esoteric manuscripts revealing fascination with hidden knowledge alongside scientific achievements. Michael Sendivogius emphasized empirical experimentation in alchemy making notable contributions to early chemistry during Baroque era.
Italian humanists Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola introduced concept of magia naturalis viewing it as elemental force pervading natural processes. This view fundamentally distinguished itself from mainstream Christian idea of demonic magic attracting interest from Aristotelians Neoplatonists Hermeticists by fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Gabriel Naudé wrote Apology for all the Wise Men Falsely Suspected of Magic in 1625 distinguishing Mosoaicall Magick from geotick magic caused by demons. By seventeenth century distinctions between magia naturalis and science became blurred moving increasingly toward naturalistic directions. Validity of magia naturalis came under increasing criticism during Age of Enlightenment in eighteenth century despite attempts to reclaim term positively. Europe saw active persecution of accused witches believed guilty of maleficia reflecting continued negative associations throughout period. Protestants sought to denigrate Roman Catholic sacramental practices as being magical rather than religious while Catholics argued their practices were truly religious. Renaissance humanism saw resurgence in hermeticism Neo-Platonic ceremonial magic alongside rise of science dethroning Ptolemaic theory. Displacement of practical Kabbalah using directly magical means gained emphasis within Hasidism through conceptual meditative trends.
Edward Tylor characterized magic as beliefs based on error mistaking ideal analogy for real analogy in his 1871 book Primitive Culture. James Frazer described sympathetic magic relying on belief that things act at distance through secret sympathy invisible ether dividing homeopathic and contagious forms. Herbert Spencer presented magic predated religion evolutionary development first social scientist to use term reference sympathetic magic. Marcel Mauss set forth conception in 1902 essay General Theory of Magic defining rite not part organized cult private secret mysterious forbidden. Emile Durkheim associated religion with organized cult contrasting magic inherently anti-social existing without Church of magic. Robert Ranulph Marett viewed magic response to stress cathartic stimulating practice relieving feelings tension in 1904 article. Bronisław Malinowski tackled issue 1925 article rejecting Frazer evolutionary hypothesis arguing all three present each society arising function emotional stress situations. Sigmund Freud explained magic emerges human emotion interpreting paths along which proceeds misunderstanding replacing laws nature psychological ones. Jean Piaget used concept argument children unable clearly differentiate mental physical ages six nine abandoning magical thinking later. Murray Rosalie Wax argued scholars look magical worldview given society own terms rather rationalize Western ideas about scientific knowledge 1960s.
Common questions
What is the origin of the English word magic?
The English word magic traces its lineage back to the Old Persian term maguš, a designation for a specific priestly class within ancient Persia. Herodotus recorded one of the earliest surviving accounts of these Persian magi in his historical writings during the fifth century BCE.
How did ancient Mesopotamians practice defensive magic known as asiputu or massmassut?
Defensive magic known as asiputu or massmassut served as incantations intended to alter specific realities in ancient Mesopotamia. The ancient Mesopotamians believed magic was the only viable defense against demons, ghosts, and evil sorcerers who might curse them.
When were the Pyramid Texts inscribed on the interior walls of the pyramid of Unas?
The interior walls of the pyramid of Unas contain hundreds of magical spells running floor to ceiling in vertical columns. These inscriptions are known as Pyramid Texts and were strictly reserved for royalty only until tomb robbers broke into them during the First Intermediate Period.
Who claimed that magic had been created by Iranian philosopher Zoroaster and brought west into Greece by magician Osthanes?
Pliny the Elder claimed magic had been created by Iranian philosopher Zoroaster and brought west into Greece by magician Osthanes. Laws criminalizing things regarded as magic were introduced within the Roman Empire during the first century CE.
What is the significance of the Coptic term hik descends from the pharaonic term heka in ancient Egypt?
In ancient Egypt, magic personified as the god Heka was an integral part of religion and culture known through substantial textual corpora. The Coptic term hik descends from the pharaonic term heka which had no connotation of impiety or illegality from the Old Kingdom through the Roman era.