Josip Broz Tito
Josip Broz, known to the world as Tito, once wrote a letter that read: "Stalin. Stop sending assassins to murder me. We have already caught five, one with a bomb, another with a rifle." He added that if it did not stop, he would send one man to Moscow, and there would be no need to send another. This was a communist leader threatening the most powerful figure in the communist world. Stalin had boasted that he would shake his little finger and Tito would be gone. He never was. Tito led Yugoslavia as prime minister from 1943 and as president from 1953 until his death in 1980. He held the rank of marshal, and he became president for life in 1974. How did a locksmith's apprentice from a Croatian village come to defy Stalin, hold a Cold War world at arm's length, and bind together a federation of rival nations? And what happened to that federation once he was gone?
Kumrovec was a village in the northern Croatian region of Zagorje, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, when Josip Broz was born there on the 7th of May 1892. He was the seventh or eighth child of Marija and Franjo Broz, a couple who had already buried a number of children in infancy. His father was a Croat whose family had lived in the village for three centuries. His mother was a Slovene from the village of Podsreda.
Franjo Broz had inherited a 10 acre estate and a good house, but he could not make farming pay. Young Josip spent much of his pre-school years with his maternal grandparents at Podsreda, where he became a favourite of his grandfather Martin Javeršek. By the time he came back to Kumrovec for school, he spoke Slovene better than Croatian and had learned to play the piano. Despite his mixed parentage, he identified as a Croat like his father.
He entered primary school at Kumrovec in July 1900. He completed four years, failed 2nd grade, and graduated in 1905. The limited schooling left a lasting mark; throughout his life Tito was poor at spelling. In 1907 his father wanted him to immigrate to the United States but could not raise the money for the voyage. So at fifteen, Broz left Kumrovec instead and travelled about 60 miles south to Sisak.
Nikola Karas, a Czech locksmith in Sisak, took Broz on for a three-year apprenticeship that included training, food, and room and board. His father could not afford his work clothing, so Broz paid for it himself. During the apprenticeship he was encouraged to mark May Day in 1909, and he read and sold Slobodna Reč, a socialist newspaper. His younger brother Stjepan soon became apprenticed to Karas too.
After finishing in September 1910, Broz found work in Zagreb and joined the Metal Workers' Union at eighteen, taking part in his first labour protest. The next years became a restless tour of central Europe in search of work. He worked in a factory at Kamnik in the Kamnik-Savinja Alps. In Bohemia he joined a successful strike when an employer tried to bring in cheaper labour. He was briefly employed at the Škoda Works in Plzeň, then moved on to Munich, the Benz car factory in Mannheim, and the Ruhr industrial region.
By October 1912 he had reached Vienna, staying with his older brother Martin. At Wiener Neustadt he worked for Austro-Daimler and was often asked to drive and test the cars. He spent his spare hours fencing and dancing, and he picked up German and passable Czech. This taste for cars, the open road, and good living would follow him into power.
In May 1913 Broz was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army for two years of compulsory service. He requested the 25th Croatian Home Guard Regiment garrisoned in Zagreb. After learning to ski, he was sent to a school for non-commissioned officers in Budapest and promoted to sergeant major. At twenty-two he was the youngest of that rank in his regiment, and by at least one account the youngest in the entire Austro-Hungarian Army. He won the regimental fencing competition and came second in the army championships in Budapest in May 1914.
His war record was braver than he later admitted. On one occasion a scout platoon he commanded went behind enemy lines and brought back 80 Russian soldiers alive. In 1980 it was discovered that he had been recommended for an award for gallantry. His biographer Richard West wrote that Tito downplayed this record, because it contradicted his later self-portrait as an unwilling conscript opposed to the Habsburg monarchy. His fellow soldiers had regarded him as kaisertreu, true to the Emperor.
On the 25th of March 1915, near Bukovina, a Circassian cavalryman drove a lance into his back below the left arm. Broz fainted. As he later told it, the Circassians began to butcher the wounded with their knives until Russian infantry arrived and put an end to it. He was now a prisoner of war, transported east to a hospital in an old monastery at Sviyazhsk on the Volga. During thirteen months there he suffered pneumonia and typhus, and learned Russian with the help of two schoolgirls who brought him Tolstoy and Turgenev.
A Bolshevik Broz met while working on the railway told him that his son was in Petrograd, and in June 1917 Broz walked out of an unguarded prison camp and hid aboard a goods train bound for the city. Less than a month after he arrived, the July Days demonstrations broke out and he joined in, coming under fire from government troops. He tried to flee toward the United States by way of Finland but was stopped at the border and arrested in the crackdown ordered by Alexander Kerensky.
Imprisoned for three weeks in the Peter and Paul Fortress, Broz claimed to be an innocent citizen of Perm. When he admitted being an escaped prisoner, he was put on a train back to Kungur, but escaped at Yekaterinburg and reached Omsk on the 8th of November after a 2000 mile journey. Police once searched the train for an escaped prisoner and were deceived by his fluent Russian. In Omsk, local Bolsheviks told him that Lenin had seized Petrograd and recruited him into an International Red Guard.
In 1920, in Omsk, Broz married Pelagija Belousova. He was 27; she was 14. They divorced in the 1930s in Moscow. Of his time in Russia he later wrote that he heard much talk of Lenin, a little of Trotsky, and, as for Stalin, he never once heard the name. In the autumn of 1920 he and his pregnant wife made their way home, arriving in Vienna on the 20th of September. In Kumrovec he learned his mother had died and his father had moved away.
On the 30th of December 1920, the Yugoslav government issued a Proclamation outlawing communist activities, after the Communist Party of Yugoslavia won 59 seats and became the third-strongest party. The man who wrote it, Interior Minister Milorad Drašković, was assassinated by a young communist on the 2nd of August 1921. The party was declared illegal, and Broz, fired for his communist links, moved with his wife to the village of Veliko Trojstvo to work as a mill mechanic.
In mid-1925 a new mill owner gave him an ultimatum: give up his communism or lose his job. At thirty-three, Broz became a professional revolutionary. He moved to Kraljevica on the Adriatic coast and worked at a shipyard, building torpedo boats and a pleasure yacht for the politician Milan Stojadinović. He acquired there a love of the warm Adriatic coastline that lasted the rest of his life. As leader he would spend as much time as possible on his yacht, cruising those waters.
Arrests piled up. In November 1928 he was tried in Belgrade for illegal communist activity, including allegations that police had planted bombs at his address, and sentenced to five years. At Lepoglava prison he chose as his assistant a Belgrade Jew named Moša Pijade, serving a 20-year sentence, who became his ideological mentor. After Broz's sentencing, his wife and son returned to Kumrovec, then suddenly left for the Soviet Union; Pelagija had fallen in love with another man, and their son Žarko grew up in institutions.
Wanted by the police, Broz adopted pseudonyms including "Rudi" and "Tito." He used the latter as a pen name for party journals in 1934, and it stuck. He gave no reason for the choice except that it was a common nickname for men from the district where he grew up. Within the Comintern network his nickname was "Walter." At a secret conference held in the summer palace of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ljubljana, he first met Edvard Kardelj, a young Slovene communist who would become his most reliable deputy.
In early February 1935 Tito reached Moscow as a full-time official of the Comintern, lodging at the Hotel Lux on Tverskaya Street. He attended a course on military tactics run by the Red Army, lectured on trade unions, and was one of 510 delegates to the Seventh World Congress, where he briefly saw Stalin for the first time. He fell in love with an Austrian woman at the hotel, Johanna Koenig, known as Lucia Bauer, and married her on the 13th of October 1936 after Pelagija divorced him.
The Great Purge then turned on the Yugoslav communists in Moscow. The NKVD arrested and executed nearly all of the party's most prominent leaders, including over 20 members of the Central Committee. Both his ex-wife and his new wife were arrested as "imperialist spies." Tito survived by staying out of Spain, where the NKVD was active, and by avoiding Moscow when he could. His working-class origins, his attractive personality, and his gift for making influential friends all helped. The Comintern formally appointed him General Secretary of the party on the 5th of January 1939.
On the 6th of April 1941, Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia, and within days the kingdom's armed forces crumbled. Tito formed a Military Committee, and on the 27th of June 1941 the Central Committee named him commander-in-chief of all national liberation forces. On the 16th of September he left Belgrade for rebel territory. His guerrilla movement, the Partisans, is often regarded as the most effective resistance in German-occupied Europe.
The Partisans liberated territory, notably the "Republic of Užice," while clashing with the rival monarchist Chetnik movement led by Draža Mihailović. It is said Tito ordered his forces to assist escaping Jews, and that more than 2,000 Jews fought for him. The Anti-Fascist Council convened at Bihać in November 1942 and at Jajce in November 1943, where it laid the basis for a postwar federation of the Yugoslav nations and named Tito president of a provisional government.
The Germans tried to capture Tito personally. On the 25th of May 1944 he evaded an airborne assault on his Drvar headquarters in Bosnia, the Raid on Drvar. As Chetnik collaboration became evident, the Allies switched their support from Mihailović to Tito; King Peter II, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin recognised him at the Tehran Conference. On the 12th of August 1944 Churchill met Tito in Naples. By the war's end, his Partisans broke through German lines and forced a retreat beyond Yugoslav borders.
Yugoslavia liberated itself from Axis domination with limited support from the Red Army, and that fact made Tito insistent on following his own interests. Though formally Stalin's ally, the Soviets had set up a spy ring in his party as early as 1945. In 1948, wanting a strong independent economy, Tito modelled his development plan apart from Moscow. He wrote that Yugoslavia studied the Soviet system but was developing socialism "in somewhat different forms."
On the 28th of June 1948 the other Cominform countries expelled Yugoslavia, citing "nationalist elements" in its leadership. Hungarian, Romanian, and Soviet armies massed on the Yugoslav border, and an invasion was planned for 1949. Moscow assumed Tito would simply collapse. He did not. He became the first, and only successful, socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the Cominform, and Moscow labelled his form of communism "Titoism."
The split had a brutal domestic cost. Tito launched large-scale repression that reached not only Stalinists but anyone showing sympathy for the Soviet Union. Tens of thousands served in forced labour camps such as Goli Otok, Barren Island, and hundreds died. A Yugoslav government figure from 1964 put the number of Goli Otok inmates between 1948 and 1956 at 16,554, with fewer than 600 dying in detention. After Stalin's death in 1953, Khrushchev and Bulganin came to Belgrade and apologised for Stalin's wrongdoings, signing the Belgrade declaration.
Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana joined Tito in 1961 to co-found the Non-Aligned Movement, an action called The Initiative of Five. The movement offered a "third way" for countries that wanted to stay outside the East-West divide. In September 1961 Tito became its first Secretary-General, and he saw it as a way to present himself as a world leader and to improve his bargaining power with both blocs.
Tito's diplomacy could be coldly practical. He befriended Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia partly so he could send graduates of Yugoslav universities, whose standards were lower than Western ones, to work in a country willing to accept them. He visited Ethiopia in 1953, and the Emperor visited Yugoslavia in 1954. From 1950 he permitted Mexican films in Yugoslavia, where one, Un día de vida, became a hit in 1952 and sparked a "Yu-Mex" craze; musicians donned sombreros and sang Mexican songs in Serbo-Croatian.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 tested his neutrality. When Imre Nagy fled to the Yugoslav embassy, Tito granted him asylum, and Soviet tanks shelled the embassy on the 5th of November, killing the Yugoslav cultural attache. Tito refused to hand Nagy over, which served him well in the West as the "good communist" who stood up to Moscow. When KGB agents later seized Nagy from a bus that was meant to carry him into exile, Tito was furious. He boycotted the 1957 Moscow ceremonies for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution, the only communist leader who did not attend.
Tito took over the royal palaces of the House of Karađorđević and the former Habsburg palaces in Yugoslavia, and toured the country in a luxury Blue Train that recalled the royal tours of the old kings and emperors. He adopted the traditional royal custom of being godfather to every 9th son, though he modified it to include daughters after being criticised as sexist. Like a Serbian king, he would appear wherever a 9th child was born to congratulate the parents and give them cash. He spoke harshly of the Karađorđević kings, yet in many ways he appeared to his people as a sort of king.
A powerful cult of personality grew around him and was sustained for several years after his death. He received 98 foreign decorations, including the Legion of Honour and the Order of the Bath, with a favourable reputation in both Cold War blocs. Yugoslavia kept a liberal travel policy, letting foreigners move freely through the country and its citizens travel worldwide, unlike most communist states.
He favoured a decentralised federation to keep ethnic tensions under control, so the constitution delegated much power to each republic. After his death on the 4th of May 1980, the leadership became an annually rotating presidency, giving representation to all the nationalities and guarding against a single authoritarian leader. Twelve years later, as communism collapsed across Eastern Europe and ethnic tensions escalated, Yugoslavia broke apart and descended into a decade of interethnic wars, the deadliest conflict in Europe's postwar history until the Russo-Ukrainian war.
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Common questions
Who was Josip Broz Tito and what did he lead?
Josip Broz Tito was a Yugoslav communist revolutionary and politician who led Yugoslavia as prime minister from 1943 to 1963 and as president from 1953 until his death in 1980. He was the longtime leader of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia and supreme commander of the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II. He was also one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement.
When and where was Josip Broz Tito born?
Josip Broz Tito was born on the 7th of May 1892 in Kumrovec, a village in the northern Croatian region of Zagorje, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the seventh or eighth child of Marija and Franjo Broz. His father was a Croat and his mother a Slovene from the village of Podsreda.
Why did Josip Broz Tito split with Stalin?
In 1948 Tito modelled Yugoslavia's development plan independently from Moscow, seeking a strong independent economy, which led to a bitter exchange of letters and the Cominform's expulsion of Yugoslavia on the 28th of June 1948. Tito became the first and only successful socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the Cominform. Stalin arranged assassination attempts on Tito, none of which succeeded.
How did Josip Broz Tito get the name Tito?
Josip Broz adopted "Tito" as one of several pseudonyms while wanted by the police, and used it as a pen name for party journals in 1934, after which it stuck. He gave no reason for the choice except that it was a common nickname for men from the district where he grew up. Within the Comintern network his nickname was "Walter."
What was the Non-Aligned Movement founded by Josip Broz Tito?
The Non-Aligned Movement was a bloc offering a "third way" for countries that wanted to stay outside the East-West Cold War divide. In 1961 Tito co-founded it with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Jawaharlal Nehru, Indonesia's Sukarno, and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah in an action called The Initiative of Five. In September 1961 Tito became its first Secretary-General.
What happened to Yugoslavia after Josip Broz Tito died?
After Tito's death on the 4th of May 1980, Yugoslavia's leadership became an annually rotating presidency that gave representation to all its nationalities and aimed to prevent an authoritarian leader. Twelve years later, as communism collapsed in Eastern Europe and ethnic tensions escalated, Yugoslavia broke into several independent states and descended into a decade of interethnic wars.
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