Jehovah's Witnesses

Charles Taze Russell, a Scottish-American preacher born in 1852, founded a movement in Pittsburgh in 1870 that would eventually become the world's most recognizable religious group known for its door-to-door preaching and refusal to salute flags. Russell, a former businessman who lost his fortune in a failed investment, turned to the Bible to find answers about the nature of God and the end of the world. He rejected the mainstream Christian doctrines of the time, including the Trinity, the immortality of the soul, and the existence of a fiery hell, arguing that these were pagan corruptions of true Christianity. In 1876, he met Nelson H. Barbour, and together they published Three Worlds, which introduced the idea that history was divided into dispensations ending in harvests. They taught that Jesus had returned invisibly in 1874 and that 1914 would mark the end of the Gentile Times, a 2,520-year period after which God's kingdom would be established on earth. This prediction became the cornerstone of the movement, driving its early growth and shaping its apocalyptic worldview. Russell's organization, initially called the Bible Students, grew rapidly, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States. He directed The Photo-Drama of Creation, an eight-hour audiovisual presentation that combined film and narration to explain biblical history, and moved the movement's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909. Russell died on the 31st of October 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour, leaving behind a movement that would soon fracture under the weight of unfulfilled prophecies and leadership disputes.

The Name That Divided a Movement

Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who became president of the Watch Tower Society in January 1917, transformed the Bible Student movement into the Jehovah's Witnesses through a series of bold and controversial changes. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner, leading to a major turnover of members over the next decade. By mid-1919, an estimated one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and between 1921 and 1931, three-quarters were estimated to have left. Rutherford enacted several changes under his leadership, many of which are considered distinctive to modern Jehovah's Witness beliefs and practices. He advocated for door-to-door preaching, prohibited celebrations believed to be pagan such as Christmas, and introduced the belief that Jesus died on a stake instead of a cross. In 1919, Rutherford instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. In 1920, he announced that the Hebrew patriarchs would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year earthly kingdom. On the 26th of July 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name Jehovah's Witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10, to distinguish his group from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society. The name was chosen to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders, and in 1938, he introduced what he called a theocratic organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters. These changes centralized power and created a uniform structure that would define the organization for decades to come.

Common questions

Who founded the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and when did it begin?

Charles Taze Russell founded the movement in Pittsburgh in 1870. Russell was a Scottish-American preacher born in 1852 who turned to the Bible to find answers about the nature of God and the end of the world.

When did Joseph Franklin Rutherford change the name to Jehovah's Witnesses?

Joseph Franklin Rutherford introduced the name Jehovah's Witnesses on the 26th of July 1931 at a convention in Columbus, Ohio. The name was chosen to distinguish his group from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society and to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks.

What is the Jehovah's Witnesses policy on blood transfusions and when was it established?

Jehovah's Witnesses typically refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. This prohibition has existed since 1945 and acceptance of a blood transfusion without subsequent repentance has been grounds for expulsion from the group since 1961.

How many Jehovah's Witnesses died in Nazi concentration camps and what symbol identified them?

As many as 1,200 Jehovah's Witnesses died in Nazi concentration camps, including 250 who were executed. They were identified by purple triangles and suffered persecution because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party.

When did the Jehovah's Witnesses ban end in Australia and what legal case overturned it?

The ban on Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia was overturned in 1943 when the High Court concluded that the restrictions violated the constitution. The government had seized assets and raided homes to confiscate religious literature after making the organization illegal in 1941.

When did the Cuban government officially ban Jehovah's Witnesses and what happened to members who refused military service?

The Cuban government officially banned the sect on the 1st of July 1974. Those who refused military conscription were typically sentenced to one to six years in Military Units to Aid Production camps where they faced torture and murder by government agents.

The Translation That Sparked Controversy

Nathan Knorr, appointed as the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942, organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices worldwide. He also increased the use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct as well as a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger and MacLean Gilmour, have said that while scholarship is evident in New World Translation, its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines. Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine. Critics such as Edmund C. Gruss and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman, Walter Martin, Norman Klann, and Anthony Hoekema say the New World Translation is scholastically dishonest. The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions being passed to the Governing Body. Knorr introduced these changes as he believed that people making spiritual decisions should be called by Christ rather than elected. The presidency's role transitioned into heading the denomination's legal entity. The distinction between these roles grew further when all Governing Body members resigned as directors and the Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. was formed in 2000. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by Frederick Franz, Milton Henschel, Don Alden Adams, and Robert Ciranko.

The Year That Never Came

From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. From 1971 to 1981, there was a net increase of 737,241 publishers worldwide, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period. Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end, though it was strongly implied. Frederick Franz, then president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, stated at a 1975 convention that the great tribulation could be expected to start by the end of that year. Many Jehovah's Witnesses acted upon this information by quitting their jobs and preaching more fervently. After that prediction failed, ordinary Jehovah's Witness members were blamed for believing in the date rather than the Governing Body acknowledging responsibility. Membership declined significantly for a few years after the failed prediction. Jehovah's Witnesses have not set any specific dates for the end since 1975. Their publications emphasize that one cannot know the day or the hour, but they still believe Armageddon to be imminent. Verse 34 of Matthew 24, where Jesus tells his disciples that this generation will by no means pass away until all these things happen, was interpreted to refer to the generation of people alive in 1914. The initial teaching was that Armageddon would begin before the last person alive during that timeframe had died. The time limit was removed in 1995. This doctrine changed further in 2008, where generation was interpreted to refer to both the original anointed class and their remnant, the latter of which would be alive when Armageddon began. In 2010, the meaning of generation was re-interpreted to include individuals whose lives overlapped with anointed individuals alive during 1914.

The Blood That Divides Families

Jehovah's Witnesses typically refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. This prohibition has existed since 1945. They also do not eat blood-based foods, such as blood sausage. Since 1961, acceptance of a blood transfusion without subsequent repentance has been grounds for expulsion from the group. Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in a life-or-death situation. Their literature implies that there is a blood alternative for every medical situation and emphasizes the danger of blood transfusions. Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma. Autologous blood donation, where one's blood is stored for later use, is also considered unacceptable. Members may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion. Some Jehovah's Witnesses may accept prohibited blood products if medical confidentiality is upheld, although Jehovah's Witnesses who work in a hospital may break such confidentiality. Jehovah's Witness patients are generally open to non-blood alternative treatments, even if they are less effective. Courts have intervened in life-threatening situations involving children that require blood transfusions to allow the treatment to take place. Courts may allow mature minors to reject blood transfusions based on their beliefs. The 22nd of May 1994 issue of Awake! entitled Youths Who Put God First featured children who refused blood transfusions and subsequently died. The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept. Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: cell salvage, hemodilution, heart lung machine, dialysis, epidural blood patch, plasmapheresis, blood labeling or tagging and platelet gel (autologous). The denomination has established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witness members and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options. Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee's presence are deemed to have disassociated and are shunned. The National Secular Society advocates against hospitals partnering with Hospital Liaison Committees due to medical coercion.

The Silence That Protects Abusers

In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany, of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered religious persecution by the Nazis because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party. Of those, 2,000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed. They were hanged, beheaded, beaten to death, or shot dead. Conditions for Jehovah's Witnesses improved in 1942, when they were increasingly given work details that required little supervision, such as farming, gardening, transportation and unloading goods, while others worked in civilian clothing in a health resort, as housekeepers for Nazi officials, or were given construction and craft tasks at military buildings. Unlike Jews and Romani, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military. Historian Sybil Milton writes, their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects. Jehovah's Witnesses would preach inside the concentration camps, hold meetings, and smuggle in their religious literature. Approximately 800 children of Jehovah's Witnesses were taken away from their families. Witness children typically expressed defiance to the Nazi regime's attempts to make them act against their beliefs. They were often expelled from public schools due to their refusal to say Heil Hitler. Some children were sent to reeducation centers, while others were adopted by families in good standing with the Nazi regime. In East Germany, from the 1950s to the 1980s, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the Stasi, which frequently used decomposition methods against them. Jehovah's Witnesses were considered a threat because their beliefs did not conform to socialist standards and their members sometimes had contact with the West. In Australia, the government monitored radio broadcasts of Rutherford's sermons as they had received complaints about anti-Catholic rhetoric. The religious group became especially unpopular after 1940 due to their political neutrality in the second world war, prompting people to write to government officials about the names and addresses of known members. In 1941, Jehovah's Witnesses became an illegal organization. Various groups supported the ban, which caused political pressure to enforce it; Member of Parliament Maurice Blackburn opposed a ban, believing it to be caused by religious intolerance. Once the ban was enacted, the assets of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society were seized by the government. Witness homes were raided to confiscate their religious literature. Despite these measures, Jehovah's Witnesses continued their activities. The ban was overturned in 1943 when the High Court concluded that these restrictions violated the constitution. In Canada, in 1940, a year after Canada entered World War II, the denomination itself was banned under the War Measures Act as a subversive organization. This ban continued until 1943. A separate ban on the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society was not lifted until 1945. More than 100,000 dollars in assets were seized by the Canadian government and tonnes of literature produced by the group were confiscated. Hundreds of adherents were prosecuted as members of an illegal organization. Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent. During this period, many Jehovah's Witness children were expelled from school, while others

The Cross That Became a Triangle

were placed in foster homes or juvenile detention. After the ban was lifted, men who had been jailed tried to apply for an ordained minister exemption without success. This led to a legal case being filed, R. v. Stewart, which ruled that Jehovah's Witnesses were participants in a commercial undertaking and did not qualify as ministers. A similar outcome was reached in Greenlees v. A.G. Canada, where the judge decided that Jehovah's Witnesses could not be ministers because they considered every member to be one and that they did not have an organizational structure independent of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Jehovah's Witnesses faced discrimination in Quebec until the Quiet Revolution, including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings. Roncarelli v Duplessis was a 1959 legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. The court held that in 1946 Maurice Duplessis, Premier and Attorney General of Quebec, had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the Liquor Commission to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli, a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah's Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah's Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church. The Supreme Court found Duplessis liable for $33,000 in damages plus Roncarelli's court costs. Another legal case heard that year was Lamb v Benoit, where a Jehovah's Witness woman was arrested for distributing religious pamphlets. In China, Jehovah's Witnesses are banned. Missionaries like Amber Scorah were sent there to preach clandestinely. In Cuba, during the Cuban Revolution and its aftermath, Jehovah's Witnesses became one of the largest religious groups in Cuba. Despite initially cordial relations with the government, led by Fidel Castro, attempts made to suppress religious groups became apparent. In 1962, the imposed restrictions on the distribution of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature. According to the 1963 Witness Yearbook, arrests for preaching increased in 1962. The following year, foreign missionaries were exiled and hundreds of Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested for holding public and private gatherings without permission from local authorities. In 1965, the Cuban government banned the Cuban Watch Tower Society. This marked the beginning of heightened hostility towards Jehovah's Witnesses, who began to face legal repercussions for refusing to salute the flag or serve in the military when conscripted. Military Units to Aid Production were established by the government to isolate groups deemed to be deviant or undesirable, including Jehovah's Witnesses. Those who refused military conscription were typically sentenced to one to six years in these camps. A 1966 report documented instances of torture and murder of Witnesses by the government agents who worked at these camps. Despite the repercussions, Jehovah's Witnesses remained persistent in their activism. This ultimately prompted the Cuban government to officially ban the sect on the 1st of July 1974. The 1976 Constitution reaffirmed the ruling. In Eritrea, religious groups must be registered in order to legally worship. Jehovah's Witnesses, as well as other Christian and Muslim groups, have been refused this legal recognition. Jehovah's Witnesses have been imprisoned for their refusal to perform military service and for attending religious services. In France, Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as a religious group in 1947. In 1995, they were designated as a dangerous sect by French law. In 1999, the country demanded back taxes on donations to the religious group's organization from 1993 and 1996, which would have been €57.5 million. This tax ruling was overturned by the European Court of Human Rights on the 30th of June 2011. Greece had a ban on public evangelism in the 1930s. Approximately 60