January Uprising

• 1. Origins And Catalysts

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  On the 22nd of January 1863, a single conscription order ignited a firestorm across Congress Poland. Aleksander Wielopolski, head of civil administration, had moved to draft young Polish activists into the Imperial Russian Army for twenty years of service. This decision was intended to derail the underground National Government's plans but instead forced their hand to call an uprising prematurely. The Polish nobility and urban bourgeois circles longed for the relative sovereignty they had enjoyed before the previous November Uprising in 1830. Youth groups, encouraged by the success of the Italian independence movement, urgently desired similar outcomes. The Russian Empire had been weakened by the Crimean War and introduced a more liberal attitude in its internal politics. These conditions encouraged Poland's underground National Government to plan an organized strike no earlier than the spring of 1863. Blood first shed in Warsaw on February 1861 when the Russian Army attacked a demonstration in Castle Square. Five fatalities occurred during that clash, marking the beginning of open resistance. On April 8th, two hundred people were killed and five hundred wounded by Russian fire. Martial law was imposed in Warsaw, and brutally repressive measures were taken against organizers. In Vilna alone, one hundred sixteen demonstrations were held throughout 1861. By October 1861, the urban Movement Committee had formed, followed in June 1862 by the Central National Committee. Its leadership included Stefan Bobrowski, Jarosław Dąbrowski, Zygmunt Padlewski, Agaton Giller, and Bronisław Szwarce. Wielopolski's move to start conscription in mid-January forced the committee to call the uprising prematurely.

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• 2. Guerrilla Warfare Tactics

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  Unlike earlier uprisings, the January Uprising relied mainly on irregular guerrilla warfare. The small partisan groups were lightly armed and avoided large-scale battles. Initially about ten thousand men rallied around the revolutionary banner. Volunteers came chiefly from city working classes and minor clerks. There was also a significant number of younger sons of the poorer szlachta nobility and priests of lower rank. The insurgents showed determination but were deficient in weapons, training, and international military support. Leadership changed several times with figures such as Romuald Traugutt attempting to unify and strengthen resistance. Disagreements between conservative landowners known as Whites and radical reformers known as Reds weakened coordination. On the 2nd of February 1863, Lithuanian peasants armed mostly with scythes fought a squadron of Russian hussars outside Čysta Būda near Marijampolė. This engagement ended with the massacre of unprepared peasants. Despite this setback, insurgent groups merged into larger formations and recruited new volunteers. Fighting continued intermittently during the winter of 1863, 1864 on the southern edge of the Kingdom near the Galician border. In late December in Lublin Voivodship, General Michał Heydenreich's unit was overwhelmed. The most determined resistance continued in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains where General Józef Hauke-Bosak distinguished himself by taking several cities from vastly superior Russian forces. He too succumbed to a crushing defeat on the 21st of February 1864 which presaged the end of the armed struggle.

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• 3. International Diplomacy

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  The uprising broke out at a moment when general peace prevailed in Europe despite vociferous support for Poles. Powers such as France Britain and Austria were unwilling to disturb international calm. Napoleon III of France turned his political guns on Prussia with a view to provoking a war. He simultaneously sought an alliance with Austria. The United Kingdom sought to prevent a Franco-Prussian war and block an Austrian alliance with France. Austria competed with Prussia for leadership of German territories but rejected French approaches for an alliance. There was no discussion of military intervention on behalf of Poles despite Napoleon's support for continuation of insurgency. France Britain and Austria agreed to diplomatic intervention in defense of Polish rights in April. They issued notes intended to be no more than persuasive in tone. The Polish National Council hoped that evolution of insurgency would ultimately push western powers to adopt armed intervention. In June 1863, western powers iterated conditions including amnesty for insurgents and creation of national representative structure. Alexander II felt secure enough with support of his people to reject proposals. Although France and Britain were insulted they did not proceed with further interventions. This enabled Russia to extend and finally break off negotiations in September 1863. Władysław Czartoryski wrote to Romuald Traugutt stating We are alone and alone we shall remain.

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• 4. Social And Ethnic Divisions

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  Insurgents of landed background constituted sixty percent of the uprising's participants. In Lithuania and Belarus around fifty percent participated while in Ukraine some seventy-five percent joined. Records indicate ninety-five percent of those punished for participation were Catholic corresponding to general proportion of participants. Despite outreach to Rus peasants by Polish gentry comparatively few partook in January Uprising. In some cases they assisted Russian forces in catching rebels. This has been cited as one primary reasons for failure of uprising. The provisional government decreed land cultivated by peasants should become their unconditional property. Compensation for it would be given to landlords out of State general funds. However without prior ideological agitation peasantry could not be mobilized to participate except in regions dominated by Polish units. These saw gradual enrollment into uprising of agricultural workers. The government justified its inaction on back of hopes of foreign military intervention promised by Napoleon III that never materialized. The Reds criticized Polish National Government for being reactionary with policy to incentivize Polish peasants to fight. On the 27th of December 1863 Romuald Traugutt enacted decree granting peasants land worked by them. Land was to be provided by compensating owners through state funds after successful conclusion of uprising. Response was moderate since policy came too late. Russian government had already begun working among peasants to grant them generous parcels of land for asking.

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• 5. Russian Reprisals

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  After collapse of uprising harsh reprisals followed according to official Russian information three hundred ninety-six persons were executed and eighteen thousand six hundred seventy-two exiled to Siberia. Altogether over sixty thousand persons were imprisoned and subsequently exiled from Poland. Large numbers sent to interior Russia and to Caucasus Urals and other remote areas. One hundred twenty-eight men were hanged under personal supervision of Mikhail Muravyov known as Muravyov the Hangman. Nine thousand four hundred twenty-three men and women were exiled to Siberia according to Russia's own estimates. Historian Norman Davies gives number as eighty thousand noting it was single largest deportation in Russian history. Whole villages and towns burned down. All economic and social activities suspended. Szlachta ruined through confiscation property and exorbitant taxes. Count Fyodor Berg newly appointed governor employed harsh measures against population. He intensified systematic Russification effort to eradicate Polish traditions and culture. Ninety percent of ex-serfs in empire who gained land after 1861 confined to eight western provinces. Along with Romania Polish landless or domestic serfs only people eligible for land grants after serfdom abolished. Government took over all church estates funds and abolished monasteries convents. With exception religious instruction teaching ordered in Russian. That became official language country used exclusively offices central local government. All traces former Polish autonomy removed Kingdom divided into ten provinces each with appointed Russian military governor.

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• 6. Cultural Legacy

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  These measures cultural eradication proved partially effective. In 1905 forty-one years after Russia crushed uprising next generation Poles rose again Łódź insurrection which too failed. January Uprising one centuries-long series Polish uprisings. In aftermath two new movements began evolve setting political agenda next century. One led by descendant Lithuanians Józef Piłsudski emerged as Polish Socialist Party. Other led by Roman Dmowski became National Democracy movement sometimes referred Endecja roots lay Catholic conservatism seeking national sovereignty. Events figures uprising inspired many Polish painters including Artur Grottger Juliusz Kossak Michał Elwiro Andriolli marking delineation positivism followed. Polish poet Cyprian Norwid wrote famous poem Chopin's Piano describing defenestration composer piano during January 1863 Uprising. Russian soldiers maliciously threw instrument out second-floor Warsaw apartment. Eliza Orzeszkowa leading Polish positivist writer wrote Nad Niemnem novel set city Grodno after 1863 January Uprising. Initial draft Twenty Thousand Leagues Under Seas Jules Verne featured Captain Nemo Polish nobleman family brutally murdered Russians during January 1863 Uprising. France recently signed alliance Russian Empire so editor Pierre-Jules Hetzel made him obscure Nemo motives. Guy de Maupassant novel Pierre et Jean protagonist friend old Polish chemist said come France after bloody events motherland. Story believed refer January Uprising. Last veterans photographed Second Polish Republic circa 1930.

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