Infrastructure: the story on HearLore

Infrastructure

The first thing to understand about infrastructure is that it is invisible until it fails. For most of human history, the systems that kept societies alive were taken for granted, existing in the background of daily life. It was not until the 19th century that engineers and economists began to systematically categorize these networks as a distinct field of study. The term infrastructure itself emerged from the French word for foundation, originally used to describe the military supply lines that supported armies in the field. By the 1980s, the United States National Research Council had formalized the definition, describing infrastructure as the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions. This definition shifted the conversation from simple construction to a complex web of dependencies. Without these networks, the modern economy would collapse within days. Roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications form the physical skeleton of civilization. They are the arteries that carry the lifeblood of commerce, energy, and information to every corner of the globe. The American Society of Civil Engineers has been tracking the condition of these systems since the mid-20th century, publishing an Infrastructure Report Card every two to four years to grade the health of the nation. In 2017, the United States received a rating of D+, a grade that reflected decades of governmental neglect and inadequate funding. This aging infrastructure is not merely a matter of convenience; it is a critical vulnerability. The gap between what is invested and what is needed in the United States is projected to be $2 trillion from 2016 to 2025. This underinvestment has left the country tied for second-to-last place globally in infrastructure spending as a percentage of GDP, with an average of just 2.4%. The consequences of this neglect are visible in the crumbling bridges, aging water pipes, and outdated electrical grids that define the American landscape today.

Hard Versus Soft Systems

To understand the full scope of infrastructure, one must distinguish between the physical structures and the institutions that support them. Hard infrastructure refers to the tangible networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industrial society, such as roads, bridges, and railways. These are the assets that can be touched, measured, and built. Soft infrastructure, however, encompasses the institutions that maintain the economic, health, social, environmental, and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs, official statistics, parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services. The distinction is crucial because the failure of soft infrastructure can be just as devastating as the collapse of a bridge. A city may have perfect roads, but without effective law enforcement or reliable emergency services, it cannot function safely. The concept of soft infrastructure also extends to the economic constitution, a term coined by Gianpiero Torrisi to describe the object of economic and legal policy. This institutional infrastructure sets the norms and determines the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data, creating the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own plans. Without these invisible systems, the physical structures of hard infrastructure would lack the governance and social cohesion necessary to serve the public. The interplay between these two types of infrastructure is what allows a society to thrive. For example, the success of infrastructure-based development in Asia, particularly in Singapore and China, relied on combining long-term infrastructure investments with robust public-private partnerships. These partnerships allowed governments to leverage private capital to build the physical networks while maintaining the institutional frameworks necessary to manage them. The result was a rapid transformation of economies that had previously been stagnant. The demand for infrastructure in these regions is much higher than the amount invested, creating severe constraints on the supply side. In Asia, the financing gap between what is invested and what is needed is around $180 billion every year. This disparity highlights the immense challenge of balancing physical construction with institutional capacity. The success of these regions serves as a model for other developing nations, demonstrating that infrastructure is not just about building things, but about building systems that can sustain growth over time.

Common questions

When did the term infrastructure emerge from the French word for foundation?

The term infrastructure emerged from the French word for foundation to describe military supply lines that supported armies in the field. It was not until the 19th century that engineers and economists began to systematically categorize these networks as a distinct field of study. By the 1980s, the United States National Research Council had formalized the definition of infrastructure as the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions.

What is the projected infrastructure investment gap in the United States from 2016 to 2025?

The gap between what is invested and what is needed in the United States is projected to be $2 trillion from 2016 to 2025. This underinvestment has left the country tied for second-to-last place globally in infrastructure spending as a percentage of GDP, with an average of just 2.4%. The American Society of Civil Engineers has been tracking the condition of these systems since the mid-20th century, publishing an Infrastructure Report Card every two to four years to grade the health of the nation.

How much concrete is used in construction compared to all other building materials combined?

There is twice as much concrete used in construction as all other building materials combined, making it the backbone of industrialization. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, and a tenth of the world's industrial water usage is from producing it. Most concrete structures last for 50 to 100 years, meaning that many of the infrastructures built within the last 50 years are now approaching the end of their lifespan.

What percentage of infrastructure spending in the United States comes from state and local governments?

State and local governments account for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950, with the current spending level of 2.4% placing the country at the bottom of global rankings. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades.

What are the specific components of green infrastructure used to manage water and reduce disasters?

Green infrastructure includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration practices, and permeable pavement. These systems provide ecological, economic, and social benefits, including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction. Green roofs reduce stormwater runoff by storing water in growing media, while trees intercept rain and support infiltration and water storage in soil.

Where is Masdar City located and what are its key sustainable infrastructure features?

Masdar City is a proposed zero emission smart city that will be contracted in the United Arab Emirates. The city will use groundwater, greywater, seawater, blackwater, and other water resources to obtain both drinking and landscaping water. No cars will be allowed in Masdar City, contributing to low carbon emissions within the city boundaries, and alternative transportation options will be prioritized during infrastructure development.

The Concrete Paradox

Concrete is the most common material used in infrastructure, yet it is also one of the most destructive. There is twice as much concrete used in construction as all other building materials combined, making it the backbone of industrialization. It is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings, serving as a connection between cities and a protection for land against flooding and erosion. However, the production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, and a tenth of the world's industrial water usage is from producing it. The environmental cost of this ubiquitous material is staggering, as the production sites and the infrastructures themselves strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem. Despite these drawbacks, concrete remains the primary choice for infrastructure projects due to its durability and availability. Most concrete structures last for 50 to 100 years, meaning that many of the infrastructures built within the last 50 years are now approaching the end of their lifespan. This creates a paradox where the very material that built the modern world is also contributing to its destruction. The challenge for engineers and policymakers is to find sustainable alternatives that can match the performance of concrete without the environmental cost. One solution is the use of sustainable materials, which are defined as those that can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources and have low environmental impacts. These materials should be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable. Another approach is the development of green infrastructure, which uses plant or soil systems to restore some of the natural processes needed to manage water and reduce the effects of disasters. Green infrastructure includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration practices, and permeable pavement. These systems provide ecological, economic, and social benefits, including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction. The transition to sustainable materials and green infrastructure is not just an environmental imperative; it is an economic necessity. As the world faces the dual challenges of climate change and diminishing natural resources, the infrastructure of the future must be designed to protect the environment while maintaining economic development and job creation. The success of this transition will depend on the ability of governments and private investors to prioritize long-term sustainability over short-term gains.

The Financing Gap

The global infrastructure crisis is not just a technical problem; it is a financial one. The lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in landlocked, rural, and sparsely populated countries in Africa. Despite these challenges, infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for roads. However, the financing gap remains a major obstacle. In the United States, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950, with the current spending level of 2.4% placing the country at the bottom of global rankings. In Sub-Saharan Africa, governments spend around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion, with the private sector and external financing making up the difference. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s, and in Africa alone, external infrastructure investments increased from $7 billion in 2002 to $27 billion in 2009. China has emerged as an important investor, providing the capital needed to bridge the gap. The challenge is to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of developing country markets. In Latin America, three percent of GDP, around $71 billion, would need to be invested in infrastructure to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, only around two percent was invested, leaving a financing gap of approximately $24 billion. The disparity between what is invested and what is needed is a global issue, with the financing gap in Asia-Pacific alone estimated at $180 billion every year. Addressing this gap requires a coordinated effort from governments, private investors, and international organizations. The success of infrastructure-based development in Asia, particularly in Singapore and China, demonstrates that public-private partnerships can be an effective solution. These partnerships allow governments to leverage private capital to build the physical networks while maintaining the institutional frameworks necessary to manage them. The future of infrastructure depends on the ability of the global community to close this financing gap and ensure that all nations have access to the resources they need to build sustainable systems.

The Pandemic and the Future

The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted the economy, with serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state, and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies, with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across the board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies. The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for greening them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability. However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of the G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly. The concern is whether the same pattern will repeat itself, as it did after the 2007-08 financial crisis, when emissions reached a record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C. A recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would. A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy found that more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that green economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less green initiatives. The challenge is to ensure that the recovery plan is sustainable and that the infrastructure built in the future is resilient to the challenges of climate change. The success of this transition will depend on the ability of governments and private investors to prioritize long-term sustainability over short-term gains.

The Green Revolution

Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure that uses plant or soil systems to restore some of the natural processes needed to manage water, reduce the effects of disasters such as flooding, and create healthier urban environments. In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement. Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits, including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration. Green roofs, for example, are rooftops that are partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. They include additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. One benefit of green roofs is that they reduce stormwater runoff because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows. They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in the plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx. Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation. Tree planting provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish the impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff. Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings. Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing the amount of greenhouse gases. Bioretention and infiltration practices, including rain gardens and bioswales, are also effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff. These systems mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways, increase the usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation, improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted. The adoption of green infrastructure is a critical step in the transition to a sustainable future, as it provides a practical and effective solution to the challenges of climate change and urbanization.

The Smart City Vision

Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at a higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts. In a sustainable city, urban resilience as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present. Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output. When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce the same level of output at similarly reasonable costs as compared to other non sustainable communities, while still maintaining ease of operation and usage. Masdar City is a proposed zero emission smart city that will be contracted in the United Arab Emirates. Some individuals have referred to this planned settlement as utopia-like, due to the fact that it will feature multiple sustainable infrastructure elements, including energy, water, waste management, and transportation. Masdar City is located in a desert region, meaning that sustainable collection and distribution of water is dependent on the city's ability to use water at innovative stages of the water cycle. The city will use groundwater, greywater, seawater, blackwater, and other water resources to obtain both drinking and landscaping water. Initially, Masdar City will be waste-free. Recycling and other waste management and waste reduction methods will be encouraged. Additionally, the city will implement a system to convert waste into fertilizer, which will decrease the amount of space needed for waste accumulation as well as provide an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional fertilizer production methods. No cars will be allowed in Masdar City, contributing to low carbon emissions within the city boundaries. Instead, alternative transportation options will be prioritized during infrastructure development. This means that a bike lane network will be accessible and comprehensive, and other options will also be available. The vision of Masdar City represents the future of infrastructure, where technology and sustainability are integrated to create a model for urban living. The success of this project will depend on the ability of the city to implement these innovative solutions and to scale them to other cities around the world. The smart city concept is not just about technology; it is about creating a sustainable and resilient community that can adapt to the challenges of the future.