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— CH. 1 · ARAB CONQUEST OF SICILY —

History of Islam in southern Italy

~5 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
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  • The year 827 marked the beginning of a seventy-five-year struggle for control over Sicily. A Byzantine commander named Euphemius fled to Africa after being accused of a sexual indiscretion by Emperor Michael II. He promised Ziyadat Allah, the Emir of Ifriqiya, that he would receive the island in exchange for a yearly tribute. The Muslim force numbered 10,000 infantry and 700 cavalry. They landed at Mazara del Vallo on the 15th of July 827, defeating Byzantine troops in the first major battle. Asad ibn al-Furat led the initial campaign but died during a siege of Syracuse due to plague. Reinforcements arrived in 830 with 30,000 African and Spanish troops. Palermo fell in September 831 after a year-long siege and became the capital known as al-Madinah. By 965, the entire island was under Muslim control.

  • In 909, the Fatimid Caliphate replaced the Aghlabid dynasty in North Africa. Three years later, the island declared independence from the Fatimids under Emir Ibn Qurhub. His failed siege of Taormina weakened his influence. A Fatimid fleet placed Palermo under siege in 917, capturing and executing Ibn Qurhub. The island was governed by a Fatimid emir for twenty years. In 948, the Fatimid Caliph Ismail al-Mansur named al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi as emir. His position soon became hereditary, making the emirate de facto independent. Abu'l-Qasim Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi launched attacks against Calabria in the 970s. The emirate reached its cultural peak under Ja'far (983, 985) and Yusuf al-Kalbi (990, 998). Both were patrons of the arts. Ja'far expelled Berbers after an unsuccessful revolt. Al-Akhal ruled from 1019 to 1037 but caused civil war through heavy taxation.

  • The Norman Robert Guiscard invaded Sicily in 1060. The island was split between three Arab emirs. Messina fell one year later. Palermo was taken by the Normans in 1072. The loss of these cities dealt a severe blow to Muslim power. Noto fell in 1091, marking the end of the Emirate of Sicily. Malta also fell that same year. The conquest established Roman Catholicism firmly in the region. Many Muslims decided to leave Sicily and go into exile. Famous poets like Abu Al Hasan Al Balnubi wrote poetry regarding their exile. Some Muslims remained confined to western Sicily. Frederick II introduced oppressive measures to please the popes. A rebellion by Sicilian Muslims triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals. Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the last Muslims of Sicily around 1245.

  • Frederick II ordered the deportation of Muslims to the settlement of Lucera in 1245. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000 people. Lucera became known as Lucaera Saracenorum. The colony thrived for seventy-five years until it was sacked in 1300. Christian forces under Charles II of Naples seized the city. The Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery. Many found asylum in Albania across the Adriatic Sea. Charles II replaced the Saracens with Christians, chiefly Burgundian and Provençal soldiers. An initial settlement included 140 Provençal families in 1273. A remnant of these descendants still speaks a Franco-Provençal dialect today. Giovanni Pipino da Barletta, count of Altamura, seized Lucera and ended the medieval Muslim presence in Italy.

  • Arab raids on the Italian mainland began as early as 846 when a force landed at Porto and Ostia. Bari was captured by Muslims either in 840 or 847. It remained under control for twenty-five years. Khalfun was the first ruler of Bari. He came from Sicily and died in 852. Mufarraq ibn Sallam succeeded him and strengthened the conquest. Sawdan became the third emir around 857 after murdering his predecessor. He invaded lands of the Lombard Duchy of Benevento. Emperor Louis organized a response in 866. After five years of campaigning, he attacked Bari with Franks and Lombards aided by a Croatian fleet. The citadel fell in February 871. Sawdan was captured and taken to Benevento in chains. Taranto was also occupied starting in 840 but lost in 880. These footholds served as bases for raids into the Adriatic Sea.

  • In 1480, an Ottoman Turkish fleet invaded Otranto. They captured the city along with its fort. The population was massacred after refusing to convert to Islam. Pope Sixtus IV called for a crusade. Ferdinand I of Naples built a massive force including troops of Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus. The Neapolitan force met the Turks in 1481 and annihilated them. Otranto was recaptured. In 1537, the famous Turkish corsair Barbarossa tried again to conquer Otranto. The Turks were eventually repulsed from the city. Ottoman incursions continued into the 17th century. Pozzuoli and Castellamare in the Bay of Naples were attacked in 1548. Reggio in Calabria saw its cathedral destroyed in 1594. Vieste, Vasto, and Manfredonia were raided and sacked in 1554, 1560, and 1620 respectively.

  • Only in Sicily can be found some Islamic and Arabic influence and legacy. This is mainly located in the western half of the island. Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, spoke Arabic as well as Latin, Sicilian, German, French, and Greek. He had several Muslim ministers. The heritage of the Arabic language remains in numerous terms adapted into the Sicilian dialect. Some Sicilian place names derive from Arabic origins. Calata- or Calta- comes from the word for fortress or citadel. Caltanisetta gets its name from Qal'at al-Nisā', meaning Fort of the Women. Monnereau et al. analyzed burials at Segesta in 2024. Their biomolecular results suggest Christians remained genetically distinct from the Muslim community while following a substantially similar diet. The authors suggest both communities followed endogamy rules during the Middle Ages.

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Common questions

When did the Muslim conquest of Sicily begin and end?

The Muslim conquest of Sicily began in 827 when a force landed at Mazara del Vallo on the 15th of July 827. The Emirate of Sicily ended in 1091 when Noto fell to the Normans.

Who led the initial campaign for the invasion of Sicily in 827?

Asad ibn al-Furat led the initial campaign but died during a siege of Syracuse due to plague. Reinforcements arrived in 830 with 30,000 African and Spanish troops under new leadership.

Where were the last Muslims of Sicily deported to by Frederick II?

Frederick II ordered the deportation of Muslims to the settlement of Lucera in 1245. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000 people before the city was sacked in 1300.

Which Italian mainland cities were captured by Arab forces in the 9th century?

Bari was captured by Muslims either in 840 or 847 and remained under control for twenty-five years. Taranto was also occupied starting in 840 but lost in 880.

When did the Ottoman Turkish fleet invade Otranto and what happened to the population?

In 1480 an Ottoman Turkish fleet invaded Otranto and captured the city along with its fort. The population was massacred after refusing to convert to Islam.

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All sources

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